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Knowledge Management and Intelligent Systems, Refers to the shared…

- - - - Economic and institutional regime
      - Educated and skilled population
      - Efficient innovation system
      - Information and communication technology
- - - - fact
      - procedural rule
      - heuristic
      - Intelligence
      - Memory
      - Learning
      - Experience
      - Common sense
      - Wisdom
  - - - “dynamic
        continuum,”
        
        Which is defined as “turbulently” growing at every
        moment and made up of an “infinity of points”
  - - - Key properties of explicit knowledge:
        
        Codification
        
        Transferability
    - - Key properties of tacit knowledge:
        
        Embeddedness in social systems, values, cultural
        behaviour and practices
        
        Needs a domain expert
  - - - Knowledge Framework for Knowledge
        Society
        
        Knowledge Society
        
        Knowledge Economy
        
        Knowledge Management
        
        Knowledge Crash
        
        Knowledge Sharing and Capitalization
  - - - Generating new knowledge
      - Using accessible knowledge in decision making
      - Embedding knowledge in processes, products, and/or services
      - Representing knowledge in documents,databases, and software
      - Facilitating knowledge growth through culture and incentives
      - Transferring existing knowledge into other parts of the organization
      - Measuring the value of knowledge assets and/or impact of knowledge management
    - - a business activity
        with two primary aspects:
        
        Knowledge management develops systems and processes to acquire and share intellectual assets
        
        a collaborative and integrated approach to the creation, capture, organization, access, and use of an enterprise’s intellectual assets.
        
        Making a direct connection between an organization’s intellectual assets—both explicit (recorded) and tacit (personal know-how)—and positive business results.
        
        Treating the knowledge component of business activities as an explicit concern of business reflected in strategy, policy, and practice at all levels of the organization.
    - - For the individual, KM:
        
        Helps people do their jobs and save time through better decision making and problem solving.
        Builds a sense of community bonds within an organization
        Helps people to keep up to date
        Provides challenges and opportunities to contribute
      - For groups, KM:
        
        Develops professional skills
        Promotes peer-to-peer mentoring
        Facilitates more effective networking and collaboration
        Develops a professional code of ethics that members can adhere to Develops a common language
      - For the organization, KM:
        
        Helps drive strategy
        Solves problems quickly
        Diffuses best practices
        Improves knowledge embedded in products and services
        Cross-fertilizes ideas and increases opportunities for innovation
        Enables organizations to better stay ahead of the competition
        Builds organizational memory
    - - Globalization of business:
        
        Organizations today are more global—multisite,
        multilingual, and multicultural in nature.
      - Leaner organizations:
        
        We are doing more and we are doing it faster but we also need to work smarter as knowledge workers—increased pace and workload.
      - Corporate amnesia:
        
        workforce turnover
      - Technological advances:
        
        Information technology advances have made connectivity not only ubiquitous but has radically changed expectations
        
        Ø We are expected to be on at all times and the turnaround time in responding is now measured in minutes not weeks.
    - - Business perspective—
        
        focusing on why, where, and to what extent the organization must invest in or exploit knowledge.
        
        Strategies, products and services, alliances, acquisitions, or divestments should be considered from knowledge-related points of view.
      - Management perspective—
        
        focusing on determining, organizing, directing, facilitating, and monitoring knowledge-related practices and activities required to achieve the desired business strategies and objectives.
      - Hands-on perspective—
        
        focusing on applying the expertise to conduct explicit knowledge-related work and tasks.
    - - Leveraging core business competencies.
      - Accelerating innovation and time-to-market.
      - Empowering employees
      - Innovating and delivering high-quality products,
      - Improving cycle times and decision-making,
      - Strengthening organizational commitment,
      - Building sustainable competitive advantage.
- - - - 1- Knowledge and knowledge sources are identified and located.
        2- Knowledge is translated into explicit form.
        3- Networks, practices and incentives are instituted
        4- Knowledge is field tested
        5- Know-how is transferred to organizational knowledge repository; becomes part of "corporate memory".
  - - - Discovery of Knowledge
        
        The development of new tacit or explicit
        knowledge from data and information or from
        the synthesis of prior knowledge.
        
        The discovery of new knowledge relies on:
        
        1- Combination- discovery of new explicit knowledge.
        
        Through communication, integration, and
        systemization of multiple streams of explicit
        knowledge, new explicit knowledge is created—
        either incrementally or radically
        
        Existing explicit knowledge, data, and information
        are reconfigured, re-categorized, and re-contextualized to produce new explicit knowledge.
        
        2- Socialization- discovery of new tacit knowledge
        
        through joint activities rather than
        written or verbal instructions.
      - Capturing of Knowledge
        
        The process of retrieving either explicit or
        tacit knowledge that resides within people,
        artifacts, or organizational entities.
        
        The knowledge capture sub-processes:
        
        1- Externalization
        
        involves converting tacit
        knowledge into explicit forms such as words,
        concepts, visuals, or figurative language
        
        2- internalization.
        
        is the conversion of explicit
        knowledge into tacit knowledge. It represents
        the traditional notion of “learning”
      - Sharing of Knowledge
        
        The process through which explicit or tacit
        knowledge is communicated to other
        individuals.
        
        Effective knowledge sharing:
        
        Effective Transfer- so that the recipient of knowledge can understand it well enough to act on it.
        
        Knowledge is shared and not recommendations based on knowledge.
        
        It may take place across individuals, groups, departments or organizations.
        
        Knowledge sharing sub-processes:
        
        2- socialization.
        
        Facilitates the sharing of tacit
        knowledge in cases in which new tacit
        knowledge is being created as well as when
        new tacit knowledge is not being created.
        
        1- exchange
        
        Focuses on the sharing of explicit
        knowledge.
        
        It is used to communicate or transfer explicit
        knowledge among individuals, groups, and
        organizations.
      - Application of Knowledge
        
        The process through which knowledge is
        utilized within the organization to make
        decisions and perform tasks, thereby
        contributing to organizational performance.
        
        Sub-Processes:
        
        2- Direction
        
        involve the utilization of knowledge
        embedded in procedures, rules, and norms that
        guide future behavior.
        
        1-Routines
        
        refers to the process through which
        individuals possessing the knowledge direct the
        action of another individual without
        transferring to that person the knowledge
        underlying the direction
- - - - Data: A set of discrete, objective facts about
        events.
        
        Information: A message, usually in the form of a
        document or an audible or visible communication.
        
        Knowledge: Combination of experiences, values,
        contextual information, and expert insight that
        provides a framework for evaluating and
        incorporating new experiences and information.
    - - BOISOT I-SPACE MODEL
      - WIIG MODEL
      - Choo Model
      - Nonaka & Takeuchi
      - COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEM
- - - - Tacit Knowledge
        
        Exploration
        
        The knowledge that we know we do not have, we will need to facilitate the creation of this new, innovative content.
        
        Creating and eliciting Knowledge
        
        Exploitation
        
        Existing Knowledge to capture and Identification
        
        Individual, group, and organizational levels of learning are linked by the social and
        psychological processes of:
        
        ( The four I’s )
        
        intuiting, -- attending
        
        interpreting, -- experimenting
        
        integrating, and
        
        institutionalizing
        
        TACIT CAPTURE in Individual/Group
        
        Procedural knowledge
        
        4 more items...
        
        Declarative knowledge,
        
        1 more item...
        
        Tacit Knowledge Capture at the
        Organizational Level
        
        Organizational knowledge capture takes place
        on a more macro level.
        
        1 more item...
        
        Capturing technique
        
        Gathering know-how from experts
        
        Using
        
        Questionnaire, interview, surveys,
        observations, talk aloud, simulations.
        
        1 more item...
        
        “Digital cloning”
        
        finding ways to make tacit
        knowledge explicit
        
        1 more item...
      - Explicit Knowledge
        
        Organizing and coding existing Knowledge
        
        Knowledge-based systems/ Expert system
        
        Extract & render explicit procedural knowledge
        that comprise know-how
        
        Knowledge engineer interview the experts
        
        Produce conceptual model of the critical
        knowledge
        
        Translate the model into computer-executable
      - 3 approaches to knowledge acquisition which have to use
        simultaneously
        
        1- Interviewing Experts
        
        Structure interview
        1- Interviewer must have strong communication & conceptual skills, and also know the subject.
        2- Using open & close question.
        
        4 techniques
        
        1- Paraphrasing of the perceived meaning of the speaker’s message using own words.
        
        2- Clarifying, lets the expert know that the message was not immediately understandable.
        
        3- Summarizing, helps the interviewer compile discrete pieces of information and form a knowledge acquisition session into a meaningful whole
        
        4- Reflecting feelings, mirrors back to the speaker the feelings that seem to have been communicated.
        
        2- Learning by being Told
        
        1- Interviewees express & refine their knowledge
        2- Knowledge engineer clarify & validate
        3- Tools ;
        
        Task analysis (job specifications & descriptions)
        
        Process & protocol analysis (the way knower apply their knowledge)
        
        Simulation (model, software, maps, practices)
        
        3- Learning by
        Observation
        
        Two expertise
        1- Motor-based (operating, conducting)
        2- Cognitive expertise (conceptual, analysis)
        
        Present the problem, scenario, case to solved by the experts
        
        Knowledge can’t be observed, behaviours & expertise can
        
        Using tools such audio & video could increase the successfulness of the process.
        
        Other Methods of Tacit Knowledge
        Capture
        
        Ad hoc sessions.
        
        Road maps.
        
        Learning histories.
        
        Action learning.
        
        E-learning.
        
        Learning from others through business guest speakers and benchmarking against best practices.
    - - Converting knowledge into a tangible, explicit
        form (documents) so it can be communicated
        widely & less cost
        
        tacit Knowledge
        
        Stories
      - v The issue of codification quality ;
        Ø Accuracy
        Ø Understandability
        Ø Accessibility
        Ø Currency
        Ø Credibility
      - Why codification?
        
        v Easily understood,
        v Maintained,
        v Improved
      - Codification Techniques
        
        v Cognitive maps
        v Decision tree
        v Knowledge taxonomies
        v Task analysis
  - - - The key is to transform the individual knowledge to
        organization knowledge
        
        Learning ability
        
        Skills to apply
  - - - Working with experts to obtain
        information.
      - Analyzing information and knowledge
        flow.
      - Designing and implementing an expert
        system.
- - - - when it occurred,
      - who is knowledgeable about it,
      - who submitted it, and so on.
  - - - Refers to the set of relationships, personal interactions, and connections among participants: Viewed as a set of nodes and links, with its affordances for information flows and helpful linkages.
      - CoP’s provide a collaborative framework professionals to work together to identify and leverage best practices and standards.
        
        LinkedIn is a popular business networking site.
        
        Communities are usually open to everyone working or interested in the domain.
    - - Leader’s theory of change
      - Objectives, outcomes, and purpose
      - Role of expertise and experimental learning
      - Inclusion and participation
      - Operating model
      - Structures and infrastructures
      - Facilitation and social norm development
      - Measurement, feedback, and incentives
    - - Social network analysis- SNA
        
        Mapping and measuring of relationships and flows between people, groups, organizations, computers or other information/knowledge processing entities.
        
        Enables relationships between people to be mapped in order to identity knowledge flows:
        
        How do people seek information and knowledge from?
        
        How do they share their information and knowledge with?
        
        Mapping the flow of knowledge
        
        .The nodes in the network are the people and groups,
        
        • The links show relationships or flows between the nodes
        
        Social network analysis chart:
        
        Shows informal relationships
        
        who knows whom and
        
        who shares information and knowledge with whom
        
        Allows managers to visualize and understand the many relationships that can either facilitate or impede knowledge creation and sharing
        
        The results of social network analyses can be used at the level of individuals, departments, or organizations to
        
        unstoppers information bottlenecks and
        
        accelerate the flow of knowledge and information acrossfunctional and organizational boundaries.
        
        The process of social network analysis typically involves the use of questionnaires and/or interviews togather information about the relationships among adefined group or network of people.
      - Key stages of the process will typically include:
        
        Identifying the network of people to be analyzed (e.g., team, workgroup, department)
        
        Clarifying objectives, formulating hypotheses and questions
        
        Developing the survey methodology and designing the questionnaire
        
        How well do people know each other’s knowledge and skills? Who or what gives people information about xyz?
        
        What resources do people use to find information/feedback/ideas/advice about xyz? What resources do people use to share information about xyz?
        
        Surveying the individuals in the network to identify the relationships and knowledge flows between them
        
        Good survey design and questionnaire designare therefore key considerations. Questions will be typically based on factors such as:
        
        Who knows who and how well?
        
        Use a software mapping tool to visually map out the network
        
        Analyzing the map and the problems and opportunities highlighted using interviews and/or workshops
        
        Designing and implementing actions to bring about desired changes
        
        Mapping the network again after a suitable period of time
  - - - Expertise locators can be integrated to form a corporate-wide yellow pages, Contribution to organizational learning initiatives:
        
        identifying knowledge gaps, and
        
        providing both performance support and follow-up to formal training activities.
        
        Facilitating mentoring programs,
  - - - Types of Communities
        
        Joint enterprise
        
        refers to the glue that binds members together
        
        Reasons for interacting with one another will typically be a personal goal and contribution toward the community’s goal.
        
        Why they want to interact with one another.
        
        Mutual engagement
        
        Refers how members become part of the community
        
        There are membership rules and each member agrees to carry out certain roles and responsibilitiesin order to help achieve the goals of the CoP.
        
        Shared repertoire.
    - - pic
      - There are many forms that an online community can
        take but most will contain:
        
        Member-generated content (e.g., profiles, home pages,ratings, reviews)
        
        Member-to-member interaction (e.g., discussion forumsmember yellow pages)
        
        Events (e.g., guest events, expert seminars, virtual meetings or demos)
        
        Outreach (e.g., newsletters, volunteer/leader/mentoring programs, polls/surveys)
    - - Lurkers
        
        Members read what others have posted without
        taking an active role themselves.
      - Participation:
        
        Community members may take an active role by contributing to discussions or providing assistance to other member.
        
        The more participation that occurs in the community, the greater the value created for both community members and community creators.
    - - All types of communications are some form of conversation
      - Each communication medium has its strengths and weaknesses.
      - It is important to choose the appropriate mix of channels in order to optimize knowledge sharing
      - Important types of knowledge sharing that
        occurs in a community:
        
        involves the evolution of a best practice (an improved way of doing things) or
        
        lessons learned (learning from both successful and unsuccessful events.
      - APQC (1999) study on how knowledge is
        transferred within a company
        
        pic
      - Two major characteristics are often used to characterize the channels used for virtual knowledge sharing:
        
        social presence:
        
        the degree to which the knowledge sharer feels like they
        are talking with another person
        
        media richness:
        
        the capacity for immediate feedback, ability to support
        natural language, and social presence.
- - - - Create an organizational knowledge base to house the intellectual assets
      - Create a corporate yellow pages so that knowledge workers can find out who is knowledgeable in which areas of expertise
      - Capture best practices and lessons learned and make them available to everyone in the organization via the knowledge base
      - Empower a chief knowledge officer to develop and implement a KM strategy for the organization
      - Ensure that the organizational culture will help facilitate the key phases required for the KM cycle (to capture, create, share, disseminate, acquire, and apply valuable knowledge)
  - - - What have we already written or published on this topic?
      - Who are the experts in this area and how can I contact them?
      - Have any of our partners, contacts, and clients addressed these issues?
      - What sources did we use to prepare the publications on this topic?
      - What are the best websites or internal databases to go to find more information?
      - How can I add my own experience applying this particular piece of knowledge?
  - - - Characteristics of Individual Knowledge Workers
        
        1- Personality style,
        2- Preferences regarding how they best learn,
        3- How they prefer to receive their information,
        4- How they can best be helped to put the knowledge to work.
    - - Visualizing personalization:
        
        A one-person company or the one-person library.
        All of the knowledge resources in a given repository can be made to appear as if they were there at the disposal of a given person, reflecting their preferences, their background, and so forth.
      - Profiling
        
        Personalization and profiling is currently a popular means of characterizing visitors to a given website.
        
        The emphasis is more on ensuring that information retrieval and knowledge application processes are tailor-made for each knowledge worker.
        
        The easier it is for a knowledge worker to find, understand, and internalize the knowledge, the greater their success in actually applying this knowledge.
        
        techniques to follow or trace a given individual’s interactions with a number of corporate memory interfaces.
        
        This model will help us to better understand the types of human–knowledge interactions that have occurred in order to optimize knowledge application within the organization.
        
        push technologies are based on user models that look at historical information requests in order to push or automatically send out similar new content that becomes available.
      - Semantic Networks
        
        Content based on an individual’s personal model,
        
        How they perceive the knowledge world around them.
        1-This is often influenced by their particular background (e.g., IT vs. sociology),
        2- How long they have been in the company,
        3- How expert they are in the topic,
        4- as well as a whole spectrum of preferences ranging from the
        linguistic to the format they prefer to receive knowledge (e.g., visual types of people who prefer diagrams vs. those who prefer to read text).
        
        These are often represented as semantic networks
      - Dynamic profiling system
        
        Systems that monitor users’ tasks online and interpret them in
        context, based on traces they leave behind.
        
        This approach is based on a user interacting with a computer system to perform a task that leads to changes in the system.
        
        An observer agent (a software routine) observes these changes
        according to an observation model to generate a log or trace of what the user has done.
        
        The trace is then analyzed to identify and extract significant episodes interpret them according to explained task signatures.
        
        Each episode represents a pattern and each pattern can be mapped onto a task, a subtask, or a more specific step that forms part of the subtask.
  - - - Communication among various users
        
        Coordination of users’ activities
        
        Collaboration among user groups on the creation, modification, and dissemination of artifacts and products
        
        Control processes to ensure integrity and to track the progress of projects
    - - 1- Communication: (email and discussion forums);
        2- Coordination (shareable calendars and task lists);
        3- Collaboration (shareable artifacts and workspaces);
        4- Control (internal audit trails and automatic version control).
    - - 1- Acquiring and indexing, capturing, and archiving
        2- Finding and accessing
        3- Creating and annotating
        4- Combining, collating, and modifying
        5- Tracking.
      - These KMS functions allow multiple individuals to organize meaningful activities around shared and reusable artifacts to achieve specific goals.
        
        KMS address the distributed nature of work and expertise.
  - - - Knowledge producer, the person who produced or documented the knowledge object;
        
        Knowledge intermediary, who prepares knowledge for reuse by indexing,, packaging, and even marketing .
        
        Knowledge object; and the knowledge re-user, who retrieves, understands, and applies it.
    - - 1- Shared work producers, who produce knowledge
        they later reuse
        2- Shared work practitioners, who reuse each other’s’
        knowledge contributions
        3- Expertise-seeking novices
        4- Secondary knowledge miners
  - - - a mix of tacit and explicit knowledge, based on the unique
        experiences of the individuals who are or were a part of that
        company,
        
        the know- how that has been tried, tested, and found to
        work in work situations.
- - - - Ruggles (1997) provides a good classification of KM
        technologies as tools that intervene in the knowledge
        processing phases:
        
        1- That enhance and enable knowledge generation, codification, and transfer.
        
        2- That generate knowledge (e.g., data mining that discover new patterns in data).
        
        3- That code knowledge to make knowledge available for others.
        
        4- That transfers knowledge to decrease problems with time and space when communicating in an organization.
      - Rollet (2003) classifies KM technologies according to
        the following scheme:
        
        1- Communication
        
        2- Collaboration
        
        3- Content creation
        
        4- Content management
        
        5- Adaptation
        
        6- E-learning
        
        7- Personal tools
        
        8- Artificial intelligence
        
        9- Networking
      - Content Creation Tools
      - Content Management Tools
      - Knowledge Sharing and Dissemination Tools
        
        Rollet (2003) made a distinction between
        communication technologies (such as
        telephone and email) and collaboration
        technologies (such as workflow management),
        yet it is very difficult to draw a line between the
        two.
      - Networking Technologies
        
        Networking technologies consist of:
        
        1- Intranets (intra-organizational network),
        
        2- Extranets (inter- organizational network),
        
        3- knowledge repositories,
        
        “on-line computer- based
        storehouse of expertise, knowledge, experiences,
        and documentation about a particular domain of
        expertise".
        
        three types of knowledge repositories:
        
        1- External knowledge repositories (such as competitive intelligence)
        
        2- Structured internal knowledge repositories (such as
        research reports, product-oriented market material)
        
        3- Informal internal knowledge repositories (such as lessons learned)
        
        Most repositories will contain the following elements:
        
        1- Declarative knowledge (e.g., concepts, categories, definitions, assumptions—knowledge of what)
        
        2- Procedural knowledge (e.g., processes, events, activities, actions, manuals—knowledge of how or know-how)
        
        3- Causal knowledge (e.g., rationale for decisions, for rejected decisions—knowledge of why)
        
        4- Context (e.g., circumstances of decisions, informal knowledge, what is and what is not done, accepted etc.— knowledge of care-why)
        
        4- knowledge portals
        
        5- Web-based shared workspaces.
      - Knowledge Acquisition and Application Tools
        
        A number of technologies play an important role in
        how successful knowledge workers are in acquiring
        (i.e., understanding) and applying (i.e., making use of)
        knowledge content that is made available to them by
        the organization.
        
        1- E-learning applications
        
        6- Intelligent agents:
        
        Software programs, which assist their user and act
        on his/her behalf, such as a computer program that
        helps you in newsgathering, acts autonomously and
        on its own initiative, has intelligence and can learn,
        and improves its performance in executing its tasks
        
        Most agents are Internet based, that is, software
        programs inhabiting the Net and performing their
        functions there.
        
        Features are necessary to define a true
        intelligent agent :
        
        1- Autonomy—the ability to do most of their tasks without any direct assistance from an outside source, which includes human and other agents, while controlling their own actions and states.
        
        4- Personalization—the ability to adapt to its users’ needs, by learning from how the user reacts to the agent’s performance.
        
        2- Social ability—the ability to interact with, when they deem appropriate, other software agents and humans.
        
        3- Responsiveness—the ability to respond in a timely fashion to perceived changes in the environment, including changes in the physical world, other agents, or the Internet.
        
        5- Initiative—the ability of an agent to take initiatives by itself, autonomously (out of a specific instruction by its user) and spontaneously, often on a periodical basis, which makes the agent a very helpful and time saving tool.
        
        6- Adaptivity—the capacity to change and improve according to the experiences accumulated. This has to do with memory and learning: an agent learns from its user and progressively improves in performing its tasks. The most experimental bots even develop their own personalities, and make decisions based upon past experiences.
        
        7- Cooperation—the interactivity between agent and user is fundamentally different from the one- way working of ordinary software.
        
        intelligent agents examples:
        
        1- Filtering email.
        2- Electronic commerce (such as locating information for purchasing and buying).
        3- Management of complex commercial and industrial processes (such as scheduling appointments and air traffic control).
        
        Categories of intelligent agents:
        
        1- Watcher agents, which look for specific information
        2- Learning agents, which tailor to an individual’s preferences by learning from the user’s past behavior
        3- Shopping agents, which compare “the best price for an item”
        4- Information retrieval agents, which help the user to “search for information in an intelligent fashion”
        5- Helper agents, which perform tasks autonomously without human interaction.
        
        2- Decision support systems
        
        3- Visualization technologies
        
        4- Expert systems
        
        5- Artificial intelligence
- - - - Sveiby (2001) developed a framework for
        categorizing the different types of KM
        initiatives. He uses three categories:
        
        External structure initiatives
        
        (e.g., gain knowledge from customers, offer customers additional knowledge)
        
        Internal structure initiatives
        
        build a knowledge-sharing culture, create new revenues from existing knowledge, capture individuals’ tacit knowledge, store it, spread it, and reuse it, and measure knowledge-creating processes and intangible assets produced)
        
        Competence initiatives
        
        create careers based on KM, create microenvironments for knowledge transfer and learn from simulations and pilot projects)
    - - The most commonly encountered business
        drivers for KM include:
        
        Retirement of key personnel
        
        Need for innovation to compete in dynamic,
        challenging business environment.
        
        Need for internal efficiencies in order to reduce
        costs and effort.
    - - A KM strategy is a general, issue-based
        approach to defining operational strategy and
        objectives with specialized KM principles and
        approaches
        
        Components of KM Strategy
        
        An articulated business strategy and objectives
        
        Products or services
        
        Target customers
        
        Preferred distribution or delivery channels
        
        Characterization of regulatory environment
        
        Mission or vision statement
        
        A description of knowledge-based business issues
        
        Need for collaboration
        
        Need to level performance variance
        
        Need for innovation
        
        Need to address information overload
        
        An inventory of available knowledge resources
        
        Knowledge capital: tacit and explicit knowledge, know-how, expertise, and experience in the minds of individuals and in communities or embedded in work routines, processes, procedures, roles, and artifacts such as documents or reports
        
        Social capital: culture, trust, context, the informal networks, and reciprocity (e.g., willingness to experiment, take risks, or be able to fail without fear of repercussions)
        
        Infrastructure capital: physical knowledge resources (e.g., LAN/WAN, file servers, intranets, PCs, applications, physical workspaces and offices, and the organizational structure).
        
        An analysis of recommended knowledge leverage points that describes what can be done with the above-identified knowledge and knowledge artifacts and that lists KM projects that can be undertaken with the intent to maximize ROI and business value.
        
        Steps for Developing a KM Strategy
        
        1- Understand the organization in terms of its current state (as is).
        
        2- Determine the desired business objectives (to be).
        
        3- gap analysis: The analysis of the difference between the two states.
        
        4- Determine the KM strategic road map.
        
        The road map represents a three- to five-year strategy with clear milestones or targets to be achieved throughout that
        time.
        
        2 more items...
        
        A good gap analysis should address the
        following points
        
        8 more items...
      - A KM strategy helps address the following
        questions:
        
        1- Which KM approach, or set of KM approaches, will bring the most value to the organization?
        
        2- How can the organization prioritize alternatives when any one or several of the alternatives are appealing and resources are limited?
      - The strategy is used to define a plan of action by undertaking a gap analysis.
        
        The gap analysis involves establishing the current and desired states of knowledge resources and KM levers.
        
        Specific projects are then defined in order to
        address specific gaps that were identified and
        agreed upon as being high-priority areas.
    - - A knowledge audit service identifies the core
        information and knowledge needs and uses in
        an organization.
        
        A knowledge audit would result in the following types
        of results:
        
        1- Identification of core knowledge assets and flows—who creates, who uses.
        
        2- Identification of gaps in information and knowledge needed to manage the business effectively Areas of information policy and ownership that need improving.
        
        3- Opportunities to reduce information handling costs.
        
        4- Opportunities to improve coordination and access to commonly needed information.
        
        5- A clearer understanding of the contribution of knowledge to business results.
        
        Organizational Maturity Models
        
        Another type of knowledge audit looks at the
        overall maturity level or organizational
        readiness for KM.
        
        maturity model as “a descriptive model of the
        stages through which organizations progress as
        they define, implement, evolve, and improve
        their processes.
        
        This model serves a guide for selecting process
        improvement strategies by:
        
        1- Facilitating the determination of the current process capabilities and,
        
        2- The identification of issues most critical to quality and process improvement within a particular domain, such as software engineering or systems engineering”.
        
        Stages of the Capability Maturity Model -CMM
        
        Initial. Processes are not well defined.
        
        Repeatable. Basic processes are established and there is a level of discipline to stick to these processes.
        
        Defined. All processes are defined, documented, standardized, and integrated into each other.
        
        Managed. Processes are measured by collecting detailed data on the processes and their quality.
        
        Optimizing. Continuous process improvement is adopted and in place by quantitative feedback and from piloting new ideas and technologies.
        
        Infosys model (Kochikar, 2000) :
        
        1- implemented in a variety of organizations
        2- consistent with the others in that it is based on the Capability Maturity Model approach.
        3- linked to specific KM behaviors that can be detected at the organizational, group, and individual levels.
- - - - 1- Assess how well KM is succeeding (milestones and formative evaluation) and
      - 2- How well KM has helped attain organizational goals (outcomes and summative evaluation).
  - - - 1- Why are we measuring?
      - 2- What are we measuring?
      - 3- For whom are we measuring?
      - 4- When are we measuring?
      - 5- How are we measuring?
    - - 1- Define the business objective(s) addressed by the KM initiative or project.
      - 2- Define the stakeholders and determine what they need to know.
      - 3- Determine which measurement framework(s) are best to align KM measures with the business objectives.
      - 4- Modify the framework(s) based on what you need to measure.
      - 5- Decide on a data collection and analysis strategy.
      - 6- Get management to sign off on your measurement strategy.
      - 7- Implement measures and present the results in a form that is most appropriate for each stakeholder.