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Autocracy, reform and revolution - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Nicholas statement was also a reminder that the Tsar was the head of the orthodox church and was regarded as the embodiment of God on earth.
        
        Structures of state and church were entwined, archbishops and Bishops at the head of the church were subject to tsarist control over appointments, religious education, Most of the Churches finances and issues of administration.
      - State and Church
    - - Tsars advisors
      - Imperial council or chancellery - a body of 35 to 60 nobles specifically picked by the Tsar to advise him personally.
        
        Council of Ministers - a body of 8 to 14 ministers in charge of different departments of the Government.
        
        Senate - supposedly oversee workings of government but was largely redundant by 1855.
    - - The Tsar and the central government were based in the imperial capital, but the regime also relied on the support of provincial nobility
        
        Despite not being obliged to since 1785, many nobles continued to maintain a strong sense of obligation.
    - - The civil servants who made up the bureaucracy were paid noble officials, selected from a 'table of ranks' that laid down the requirements for office.
        
        The bureaucracy was riddled with corruption and incompetence.
        
        It was a one way system and orders were only passed downwards through the ranks.
    - - Worlds largest army of around 1.5 million conscripted serfs each forced into service for 25 years and live in a military colony.
        
        Huge army absorbed 45% of governments annual spending.
        
        Higher ranks were preserved for nobles who bought and sold their commissions.
        
        The tsar also had access to the service of elite regiments of mounted Cossacks, acting as the Tsar's police reinforcement and personal bodyguard.
    - - To preserved autocracy, the country had developed into a police state.
      - The state prevented freedom of speech, freedom of travel and travel abroad. Political meetings and strikes were forbidden.
        
        The 'Third section' of the Emperors imperial council was the Tsar's secret police, with unlimited power to carry out raids, arrest and imprison anyone.
    - - Scared that liberal ideas from the west were spreading so he tightened censorship and reduced freedoms.
  - - - Britain, Belgium, France and the states compromising Germany were well advanced industrially.
        
        Russian economy remained mostly rural with a ratio of 11:1 village to town dwellers compared to a 2:1 in Britatin.
      - Reasons for agriculture based economy
        
        Russias territories may have been vast but they were largely inhospitable: tundra, forests and stretches of barren countryside.
        
        Communications with the rest of Europe remained untapped limiting exports.
        
        Lack of progress primarily due to commitment to a serf-based economy. Land owning aristocracy, the tsarist government and the army were all reliant on serfs. Entrepreneurship was impossible.
    - - Serfs were poor, just about managing to survive on the produce they grew for themselves and the land provided by their landlords.
        
        Often suffered starvation, in years of bad harvest.
        
        Serf communes (Mirs) meant serfs worked scattered strips and were required to follow a communal farming pattern. No opportunity or incentive to work independently.
        
        Markets existed for peasants and most common purchases were Vodka, metal tools and salt. However, being self-sufficient meant that few goods were actually purchased.
    - - Obtained what they needed from their serfs in service and feudal dues.
        
        Generally uninterested in how efficiently their estates operated , so long as sufficient profits were produced, aristocratic Landowners saw little more need to do anything.
        
        There was no oppurtunity for capital accumulation as profits were generally falling. This was due to Agricultural growth in Western nations.
        
        Many were forced into mortgages, however alternatives were not seeked as money was valueless in Russia's underdeveloped economy
  - - - Non-Productive class - Consisted of clergy, nobility, civil and military officials, army and naval officers.
        
        Productive class - Serfs, Urban artisans (E.g leather-maker), Merchants and manufacturers.
        
        Middle class - striking feature was the absence of a middle class, there were a small number of professionals (doctors) of whom formed an educated 'intelligentsia', these were often sons of nobles.
      - Classes
    - - Taxes provided 25% of ordinary government income which grew to 30% by 1855
        
        Peasants were hit hard by taxation and with urban workers and tradesmen provided 90% of imperial income. Nobility and Clergy were exempt from the payment of any direct monetary tax.
- - - - However, there is an argument that the Emancipation was a state-directed manipulation of society that aimed at increasing political and social stability.
        
        However, the edict disastrously backfired and created a division between Landed nobility and Tsar rather than preserving the autocracy.
        
        Alexanders reforms weakened faith in Tsar and created an ultimate desire for 'popular participation in government'.
    - - 1858-59 Alexander II set off on a tour of countryside giving pro-emancipation speeches trying to win Noble support.
        
        His decree was not ready until February 1861.
        
        Initially, it only applied to Privately owned serfs however by 1866 State serfs were granted freedom.
        
        It granted freedom and an allotment of Land, they were required to pay 'Redemption Payments' to the government for 49 years. They had to remain in the Mirs until these were paid.
        
        Volosts established to supervise the Mirs. In 1863 the Volosts ran their own courts, replacing the landlords jurisdiction over serfs.
        
        There were 2 years of temporary obligation before freedom was granted in order to work out allocations. Open fields were given to the Mirs.
        
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    - - Kulaks (Upper peasant class), did well out of the land allocations. They bought extra land and produced a Grain surplus for export.
        
        Others sold their allocation, obtained a passport to leave the mir, which raised their living standards by finding work in industrialising cities.
        
        Some Landowners used the compensation offered to pay off debt or invested in enterprise in the cities.
        
        Many peasants felt cheated, the small allotments were increasingly divided throughout generations making them inadequate.
        
        Mir System was highly traditional, and subsistence farming and technical backwardness persisted, so that in 1878 only 50% of peasants produced a surplus.
        
        Restrictions on travel (internal passport) and the burden of redemption payments made rural life difficult.
        
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  - - - Free Peasants
        
        Greater incentive to work
        
        Grain Surplus
        
        Export of grain providing money for state
        
        Investment in industry
        
        Urban Growth
        
        Greater prosperity
    - - Romantic poet tutor, Zhukovsky and his travels around the Empire during his fathers reign
        
        Political circle of Progressive nobles 'Party of St Petersburg Progress'
        
        Milyutin Brothers who were committed to abolition of serfdom.
        
        Nikolai - Favoured slavophile tradition. Responsible for drafting of terms of Emancipation Edict, and support of Zemstva.
        
        Dmitry - Military record made him an obvious choice for Minister of War, 1861-1881. Shared view of Serfdoms weaknesses physically and ethically.
    - - Peasants uprisings since the 1840s may not have threatened autocracy but disorder added weight to argument of emancipation.
        
        Crimean war - humiliations of failures were main catalyst for reform. Dmitry Milyutin plead for reform to strengthen and restore dignity to the state.
        
        Determined to uphold autocracy but felt the pressure of reform. Started reign by relaxing censorship, releasing political prisoners and reducing restrictions on freedoms.
  - - - Dmitry Milyutin reorganised the armed forces to create a smaller, more professional, less expensive army.
        
        Conscription was made compulsory for all classes from the age of 21. Length of service reduced from 25 to 15 years active service and 10 years in reserves.
        
        Punishments were made less severe and system of military colonies was abandoned.
        
        Better provisioning and Medical were established.
        
        Modern weaponry was introduced as well as a new command structure.
        
        Military colleges set up to provide better training for non-nobles officer corps.
        
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    - - To replace the obligations of the former Serf-owning Gentry, a system of elected councils was established - Zemstva.
        
        Chosen through a system of 'Electoral colleges', which separated nobles, townspeople, Church and peasants. However, Nobility able to dominate the procedure.
        
        Zemstva given power to improve public services, develop industrial projects and administer poor relief. Spread to towns through Duma in 1870.
        
        Gave hope to intelligentsia who wanted a representative national assembly.
        
        LIMITATIONS:
        
        Power of Zemstva, they had no control over state and local taxes. Provincial governors continued to appoint officials, took responsibility for law and order and overturn decisions of the Zemstvo.
    - - There was previously no Jury system, no lawyers and no examination of witneses.
        
        Equality before the law was established with a single system of of local, provincial and national courts. The accused was presumed innocent until proven guilty.
        
        Criminal cases were heard before barristers and a Jury, selected from property owners. Judges were appointed by the Tsar and given improved training and pay.
        
        Local Justices of the Peace were elected every three years by the Zemstva.
        
        Courts were opened to the Public and could be reported on in government news Russian Courier.
        
        LIMITATIONS:
        
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    - - Abolition of Serfdom increased the need for Literacy rate among peasants. Whilst the Zemstvo provided opportunity for a change in the funding of education, under Alexander Golovnin (Minister of education 1862-7)
        
        Universities given opportunity to govern themselves and appoint their own staff.
        
        Responsibility for schooling was transferred from the Russian Orthodox Church to the Zemstva.
        
        Primary and Secondary education was extended, with 'Modern Schools' established for those who didn't want a traditional education, offered in Gimnaziya.
        
        Schools 'Open to all' (Women allowed to attend non-vocational education from 1870).
    - - Restrictions under Publishers were reduced. foreign publications were permitted with government approval, and Press was allowed to print editorials with comment on government policy.
        
        Led to rapid growth in majority of publications on sale. Books available grew from 1020 in 1855 to 10,961 in 1894.
        
        Brought about retightening of government control,in 1870s.
- - - - From 1881, Alexander III had a reign which was characterised by a similar reactionary ideal, 'total faith in the strength and righteousness of our autocratic power'.
  - - - A polish immigrant the following year fired upon a carriage carrying Alexander but hit a horse and cavalryman.
        
        April 1879, Alexander Soloviev, fired at Alexander 5 times without success.
        
        December 1879, a bomb intended to blow up the Tsar was set on the wrong train.
        
        February 1880, a mine under the Winter palace by a revolutionary failed to kill the Tsar as he was late.
  - - - Developments as well as Multiple assassination attempts drove him more allof.
        
        Persuaded by reactionaries scared of the spread of Western ideas to make a series of new appointments in 1866:
        
        Tolstoy minister of education - replace Liberal Golovnin.
        
        Timashev as minister of internal affairs, to replace Valuev.
        
        Shuvalov as head of the third section (secret police).
        
        Police, law and control
        
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        Pahlen as minister of Justice.
        
        Education
        
        Tolstoy was a staunch Orthodox believer and felt a tight control over education was essential to eradicate Western liberal ideas.
        
        Zemstva powers over education were reduced , the Church regained control over schools and gimnazii ordered to follow traditional classical curriculum.
        
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  - - - Decided following attempts on his life that unrest might only be curbed by widening democratic consultation.
        
        Melikov was appointed minister of internal affairs releasing political affairs, relaxing censorship and lifted restrictions on the activities of the Zemstva.
        
        The third section was abolished (1880) and powers transferred to normal police. Okhrana was created which was just as oppressive.
        
        In 1880, Loris-Melikov produced a report in response to zemstvo demands. Recommended the inclusion of elected representatives of the nobility, of the Zemstva, and of the tow governments in debating the drafts of some state decrees.
        
        Alexander II accepted and signed the decree on 13th March 1881, he was killed by a bomb later that day.
- - - - Russia was a Multi-national Empire, inhabited by over 100 different ethnic groups.
        
        Slavs in Russia, Ukraine and Belorussia made up two thirds of population. The remaining people were a mixture of nationalities, cultures and religions.
        
        Catholic Poles, Muslims, Jews, Romanians and Georgians were just some.
        
        The diversity provided issues for autocracy particularly following a development of national identity where ethnic groups were provoked to assert their nationality.
        
        E.g 1840 Finnish language pressure group set up.
      - Alexander II and Ethnic Minorities
        
        Alexander II was more concerned with control than racial superiority.
        
        1863, Polish rebellion broke out. More than 200,000 Poles had joined in creating an underground national government, which waged a guerrilla warfare against imperial empire - defeated in 1864 after fierce conflict.
        
        Did not engage in systematic persecution of racial minorities and used concessions to maintain authority. E.g decrees 1864-75 allowed Latvians and Estonians to revert to Lutheranism.
        
        However, growing friction towards end of his reign saw a growing intolerance of national differences. E.g Prohibition of Ukrainian language publications in 1876.
    - - Alexander III and his ministers, especially Pobedonostev engaged in a policy of 'cultural russiafication'.
        
        Finland - Parliament was reorganised in order to weaken its political influence, Russian language was demanded, Russian coinage replaced local currency.
        
        Poland - Polish national banks closed in 1885, all subjects had to be taught in Russian in Universities, administration of Poland was changed to curb independance.
        
        Ukraine - Limitations on the Russian language in 1883.
        
        Military - Conscription area widened and national areas were dispersed to avoid national groupings.
        
        ORTHODOX CHURCH - adherence to the faith was encouraged. In the Baltic region, 37,000 Lutherans converted to orthodoxy for support measures.
        
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      - Results of Russification
        
        Resistance - June 1888 Police department estimated 332 cases of mass disturbance, this included 43 disturbances in 9/12 central provinces.
        
        Resentment - more educated and wealthy national minorities disliked the policy. Constantly petitioning the Tsar for more liberty, secret book publication continued.
        
        Misguided policy? - Intensified national feeling of non-Russians and drove some wealthier citizens to emigrate or opposition, which would have previously been loyal.
  - - - Jewish Pogroms of 1881-84
        
        Pale was heavily concentrated with Jewish making them hotspots for anti-Jewish pogroms in April 1881, in Yelizavetgrad of Ukraine.
        
        It is probable that they were encouraged by the okhrana using the link to Alexander IIs assassination.
        
        Governing authorities certainly did little to curb the violence. They were slow to act, and the 'Holy league' which was supported by Pobedonostsev, helped to coordinate early attacks.
        
        From Yelizavetgrad, the riots spread to other Ukrainian towns such as Kiev, Odessa and beyond Warsaw.
        
        Many Jews fled across the border into Western Europe. 16 Major cities were affected, with Jewish Property burnt, shops and businesses destroyed and instances of rape and murder. Main outbreaks were in 1884.
      - Alexander II and III on Anti-semitism.
        
        During Alexander II's reign, anti-Semitism had existed in poorer levels of society, due to the teachings of the orthodox church and resentment of their wealth.
        
        Had allowed wealthier Jews to settle elsewhere, until the Polish revolt which frightened him into withdrawing his concessions. This encouraged anti-Semitism.
        
        Further encouraged by the reign of Alexander III and ministers such as Pobedonostsev, using slogans such as 'Beat the Yids - Save Russia'.
        
        Alexander III himself was antisemitic, largely on religious grounds. The right wing press claimed the Jewish were responsible Alexander II's assassination.
      - May Laws 1882
        
        Jews are forbidden to settle in cities of less than 10,000 people.
        
        All contracts of property outside cities to a Jew, will have no effect.
        
        Jews are forbidden to do business on Sunday and Christian holidays
      - Anti-semitic legislation 1882-94
        
        1882 - May Laws and Army Law (Jewish Doctors permitted in army).
        
        1886 - No Jew can be elected to vacancy on the board of orphan system.
        
        1887 - Jews who graduated from university outside Russia could not live outside the Pale.
        
        1887 - Number of Jews admitted to schooling was done on quotas: 10% from Pale; 5% outside the pale; 3% in capitals.
        
        1889 - Permit from minster of Justice required to be elected to the bar (legal professional body).
        
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    - - Following the pogroms, many Jews left the country. Some went on their own free will and others were forcibly expelled (Kiev 1886)
        
        From 1890, foreign Jews began to be deported from Russia along with Russian Jews from outside the Pale.
        
        1891-92, around 10,000 Jewish artisans were expelled from Moscow where they had previously legally settled.
        
        Grand duke Sergei, Alexanders brother made governor general in 1892 and forced around 20,000 Jews from Moscow.
        
        The actions forced a disproportionate number of them towards revolutionary groups.
- - - - Produced a series of reforms designed to boost the economy and provide funs to drive industrial growth.
        
        The treasury was reformed and new arrangements for tax collection, budget publication and auditing of governent accounts.
        
        Tax-forming (buying rights for tax collection) was abolished and system was reformed to include more indirect taxation.
        
        State bank (1860), Municipal bank (1862) and Savings bank (1869)
        
        Trade was promoted with a reduction of import duties from 1863.
        
        Government subsidies provided for railway construction.
        
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        Von Reuterns reforms
        
        Strengths of reform
        
        Tax farmers had to look elsewhere to invest, government provided subsidies and trade treaties encouraged enterprise.
        
        Foreign technical expertise and capital also supported industrial expansion and railway development, saw annual growth of 6%.
        
        Industrial expanse such as, Oil extraction in the Caspian sea port in Baku in 1871, Ironworks in Donetsk in 1872.
        
        Weaknesses in economy despite reform
        
        1/3 of expenditure went on repayment debts and Russian currency - the Rouble was subject to inconsistency in value,
        
        66% of government revenue came from indirect taxation, which kept the domestic market small.
    - - Introduced a prohibitive import tariff of 30% of the value of the raw materials. This encouraged home production
        
        Increased amount of indirect tax and swelled Grain exports. 1881-91 grain exports had increased by 18%, by 1892 Russian budget was in a surplus.
        
        Peasants who paid the tax and saw their grain requisitioned, many were left with no reserve. By Winter, a ((bad harvest led to wide spread famine - The great famine, 1891-92**
    - - Witte was totally committed to Economic modernisation as means of curbing revolutionary activity.
        
        Believed that the only way forward was to continue with protective tariff, heavy taxation and forced exports to generate capital.
        
        Increased foreign investment 215 million roubles - 1890 and 280 million - 1895
        
        Much of this investment wen in to metal trades, oil and Banking . Witte encouraged foreign experts to oversee and advice industrial projects. With their help there was a huge Railway Expansion.
        
        Russia became the 4th largest industrial economy in 1897. This helped increase exports and trade.
        
        Around 1600 km expansion to railways in 1871-75.
  - - - The middle class
        
        Growing class, result from industrial expansion and education.
        
        Include bankers, doctors, teachers and administrators.
        
        Enterprises included building railways and starting factories.
        
        Lower middle class could become managers or work shop owners.
      - The urban working class
        
        Around 2% of the population by the 1890s:
        
        Some peasants worked in towns and returned to farming at peak times
        
        Others became urban workers or worked for migrant groups building railways.
        
        Growing class 1 in 3 inhabitants in St Petersburg by 1864 were peasant born.
        
        Suffered poor working and living conditions.
      - The peasantry
        
        The richer peasants - Kulaks:
        
        Did well out of emancipation
        
        Bought up land and employed labour
        
        Might buy grain from poorer peasants in autumn and sell back for profit in spring
        
        Poorer peasants:
        
        Suffered more after emancipation
        
        became landless labourers, often in debt
        
        experienced poor living standards
        
        poor health and low life expectancy
    - - Small but diverse group, mostly of noble status
        
        Personal land holdings decreased since emancipation
        
        Employed in:
        
        Professional activities (e.g University professors)
        
        business, commerce, transport or industry
        
        Zemstva and/or provincial governorships
        
        Often retained much of their previous wealth and status
  - - - The church possessed strict censorship controls and the church courts judged moral and social crimes
        
        1862 - an Ecclesiastical commission was established to look into the church's organisation and practice.
        
        1868 - reforms were introduced to improve the education of priests.
        
        The church was given more power over primary education under Delyanov as minister of education.
        
        Russification promoted orthodoxy throughout the empire. It became illegal to convert from orthodoxy.
        
        There was evidence that the orthodox church was losing control over peoples lives. It was becoming less relevant in industrialising towns, and countryside superstition was becoming more powerful than priest influence.
- - - - Relaxation of censorship caused a spread of radical literature, while the relaxation of controls in higher education. This increased the number of independently minded students.
        
        Zemstva and Duma also provided opportunity for educated individuals to challenge tsarist policies.
        
        Reform to the Judicial system produced professionally trained lawyers, skilled in persuasion.
        
        Suppression of Alexander IIIs reign reinforced demands for change.
  - - - Had the wealth, time and intellect to reflect on politics. Also had travelled abroad so can compare social stagnation in their own countries.
        
        Most of 'Intelligensia' usually fell into two categories:
        
        Westernisers - who wanted to catch up with the west by copying the western ways.
        
        Slavophiles - favoured a pathway of Tsarist autocracy for Russian future.
        
        Attractions of slavophiles diminished in the 1890s, when industrialism moved forwards, creating conditions fit for western style socialism. This split the Intelligentsia:
        
        Attracted to the Marxist theory and drawn to socialism.
        
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        Split of Intelligentsia
        
        Zemstva provided a natural home for Westernising liberal opposition voices, they hoped for the Tsar to reform the autocracy to listen to his subjects and representatives.
        
        St Petersburg zemstvo demanded a central body to support regional councils, Alexander remained firm until the late 1870s. Restrictions from Alexander III in 1889-90 bitterly dissapointed Zemstva liberals.
        
        Western attraction
  - - - Series of Fires in St Petersburg destroyed over 2000 shop. Young Russia was immediately blamed and a commission for investigation was released.
        
        Young Russia - group of students who published manifesto in 1862, stating revolution was the only way forward.
    - - Mikhail Bakunin was an anarchist and socialist. Put forward idea of collective ownership - Communism. He was forced to live in exile but helped to introduce Marxism by translating Karl Marxs the Communist manifesto into Russian - 1869.
        
        Karl Marx - theory that all issues were due to class struggle. He had predicted that a struggle between 'proletariat and 'Bourgeioise' would create a perfect 'communist society'. Unhelpful in present however, Russia was predominately rural with a smaller working class.
        
        Nechaev - driven on revolution. Student activist who fled after calling for students to assassinate Tsar in 1869. Snuck back into Russia in 1871 to spread message.
    - - Set up in 1868-69 in St Petersburg. A literacy society that organised the publishing and spreading of revolutionary literature.
        
        Published Marx's Das Kapital first volume, spreading radical ideals.
        
        Small circle of less than 100 members spread through several major cities.
    - - Idea of 'Going to the people' became known as Narodnyism (populism).
        
        1874 Pyotr Lavrov encouraged a group of 2000 mainly nobility and intelligentsia, to travel to the countryside to convince peasants that the future of Russia relied upon the development of Peasant commune.
        
        Aimed to exploit the resentment from Emancipation about the lack of land to their advantage.
        
        Peasants ignorance, superstition, prejudice and deep-rooted loyalty to the Tsar meant the group was reported to the authorities. Around 1600 were arrested.
        
        2nd attempt in 1876, this was no more successful and led to more arrests, and show trials 1877-78.
        
        Narodnyism may have failed but it marked the development of opposition from underground.
    - - Set up in 1877, continued populist tradition and members sought to work with peasant communes in less obtrusive manners as doctors, teachers or workmen.
        
        Carried out Political assassinations, Head of the Third section in 1878
        
        Gathered public sympathy and the Zemstva even communicated for joint effort in pressuring the Tsar.
        
        Land and Liberty split in 1879 into 2 different groups:
        
        Black Repartition - Organised in St Petersburg by George Plekhanov and colleagues. The goal was to partition the black soil (good soil) provinces among peasants. It worked, amongst the peasantry, peacefully in hopes of stimulating social change. Severely weakened by arrests in 1880-81, when many members turned to Marxism.
        
        The Peoples Will - who was led by Mikhailov who implemented a spy in the Third Section, to avoid harassment. It advocated violence, undermining the government by assassinating officials. In 1879, they called for Tsars assassination unless a constitution was met - Tsar was murdered in March 1881.
  - - - Radicals were forced underground or exile. From Switzerland Georgi Plekhanov established the 'Emancipation of Labour' group which translated and arranged Marxist tracts for distribution in Russia.
        
        The Emancipation of labour group had limited impact, however, Plekhanov's development of the two-stage revolutionary plan was vital in advancing Marxism.
        
        Russia had to pass the Capitalist phase of development before Marxism could be implemented.
        
        Wanted revolutionaries to focus on Proletariat rather than peasantry - the dynamism for social revolution would emerge from.
        
        Wanted workers to be ready for Marxism, but to also cooperate with bourgeoisie to fight the autocracy.
- - - - Nicholas I seized the opportunity to increase Russian influence by posing as Protector of the Slavs and Christians.
  - - - Provoked Turks into declaring war October 1853.
        
        Russians were strong and triumphantly sank a squadron from the Turkish black sea fleet at Sinope bay.
        
        Brought British and French interest who were anxious to protect their own trade interests. They sent a expeditionary force of 60,000 men to the Crimea, where they mounted an assault on Russian naval base Sebastopol.
        
        Russians were defeated at Balaclava in October 1854 and Inkerman in November 1854
  - - - Trade had been disrupted, Peasant uprisings escalated and Intelligentsia called for closer relations with the west.
        
        Treaty of Paris (1856) prevented Russian warships from the Black sea.
        
        Crimean war was a wakeup call for Russia after decades of stagnation. In 1855, Alexander II brought a generation of liberal minded reform in an attempt to match the West in economic development.
- - - - It is thought that he wrote Alexanders accession manifesto 'An unshakeable autocracy'
        
        He spoke out for absolutism, nationalism and antisemitism.
  - - - His reign began with 1881 ' Manifesto of Unshakeable autocracy' and the hanging of conspirators involved in his father death.
  - - - A further act in 1890 changed election arrangements for the zemstva, to place it under central government control. This channeled efforts away from political discussions and towards social services.
        
        In June 1892 a similar arrangement was made for towns. The electorate was reduced to owners of property, subject to central government control.
  - - - The number of police increased and the new branches of the criminal investigations department were introduced.
        
        There was also a drive to recruit spies, counter-spies and agent provocateurs, who would pose as revolutionaries to incriminate others.
        
        By the 1882 statue on Police surveillance, any area of Empire could be subject to police search. Police agents could search, arrest, detain, question, imprison or exile anyone who committed a crime or they suspected would.
  - - - 1885 a decree provided for the minister of Justice to exercise greater control, for example dismissal of judges.
        
        1887 - ministry was granted powers to hold closed court sessions.
        
        1889 - ministry became responsible for the appointment of town judges.
        
        1887 - property and education required for jurers increased.
        
        1889 - Volost courts put under direct jurisdiction of Land captains.
  - - - Female univerisites were closed and univesity courts were closed.
        
        Students were forbidden from gathering in groups of more than 5.
        
        Children of lowest class were restricted to the Primary edcuation (firmly in the hands of the orthodox church).
        
        Only 21% of population in 1897 were literate.
  - - - Censors became more active; all literacy had to be approved and libraries restricted.
  - - - May 1885, the poll tax was abolished and inheritance tax introduced which helped somewhat shift the burden of tax from lower class.
        
        Peasants Land Bank 1883 in an effort to forestall rebellion.