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REMEDIATION TECHNIQUES, Researchers at the University of Warwick have…

- - - - Sphagnopsida
        
        Sphagnales
        
        Sphagnaceae
        
        Sphagnum sp.
        Decayed, dried sphagnum moss has the name of peat or peat moss. This is used as a soil conditioner which increases the soil's capacity to hold water and nutrients by increasing capillary forces and cation exchange capacity – uses that are particularly useful in gardening. This is often desired when dealing with very sandy soil, or plants that need increased or steady moisture content to flourish. A distinction is sometimes made between sphagnum moss, the live moss growing on top of a peat bog, and 'sphagnum peat moss' (North American usage) or 'sphagnum peat' (British usage), the latter being the slowly decaying matter underneath. Dried sphagnum moss is used in northern Arctic regions as an insulating material. Anaerobic acidic sphagnum bogs have low rates of decay, and hence preserve plant fragments and pollen to allow reconstruction of past environments.[8] They even preserve human bodies for millennia; examples of these preserved specimens are Tollund Man, Haraldskær Woman, Clonycavan Man and Lindow Man. Such bogs can also preserve human hair and clothing, one of the most noteworthy examples being Egtved Girl, Denmark. Because of the acidity of peat, however, bones are dissolved rather than preserved. These bogs have also been used to preserve food.[27] Up to 2000-year-old containers of butter or lard have been found. Sphagnum moss wound dressings being made at the University of Toronto c. 1914 Sphagnum moss has been used for centuries as a dressing for wounds, including through World War I.[4][29] Preparations using Sphagnum such as Sphagnol soap have been used for various skin conditions including acne, ringworm, and eczema. The soap was used by the British Red Cross during both World Wars to treat facial wounds and trench sores. Since it is absorptive and extremely acidic, it inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi, so it is used for shipping seeds and live plants. Peat moss is used to dispose of the clarified liquid output (effluent) from septic tanks in areas that lack the proper conditions for ordinary disposal means. It is also used as an environmentally friendly alternative to chlorine in swimming pool sanitation.[31] The moss inhibits the growth of microbes and reduces the need for chlorine in swimming pools. In Finland, peat mosses have been used to make bread during famines. In China, Japan and Korea, long strand dried sphagnum moss is traditionally used as a potting medium for cultivating Vanda falcata orchids.
  - - - Actinomycetia
        
        Streptomycetales
        
        Streptomycetaceae
        
        Streptomyces viridosporous
        Streptomyces flavovirens
        
        Micrococcales
        
        Micrococcaceae
        
        Micrococcus spp.
        Micrococci have been isolated from human skin, animal and dairy products, and beer. They are found in many other places in the environment, including water, dust, and soil. M. luteus on human skin transforms compounds in sweat into compounds with an unpleasant odor. Micrococci can grow well in environments with little water or high salt concentrations. Most are mesophiles; some, like Micrococcus antarcticus are psychrophiles. Though not a spore former, Micrococcus cells can survive for an extended period of time, both at refrigeration temperatures, and in nutrient-poor conditions such as sealed in amber.
        Micrococci, like many other representatives of the Actinobacteria, can be catabolically versatile, with the ability to utilize a wide range of unusual substrates, such as pyridine, herbicides, chlorinated biphenyls, and oil. They are likely involved in detoxification or biodegradation of many other environmental pollutants. Other Micrococcus isolates produce various useful products, such as long-chain (C21-C34) aliphatic hydrocarbons for lubricating oils.
        
        Arthrobacter sp.
        Genus commonly found in soil. Other notable characteristics are that it can use pyridine as its sole carbon source. A. crystallopoietes and A. chlorophenolicus have been shown to reduce hexavalent chromium and 4-chlorophenol levels in contaminated soil, suggesting they may be useful for bioremediation. Historically, pyridine was produced from COAL TAR. As of 2016, it is synthesized on the scale of about 20,000 tons per year worldwide
        
        Mycobacteriales
        
        Gordoniaceae
        
        Gordonia alkanivorans
        Isolated from soil contaminated with tar and phenol in Rositz in Germany. Has the ability to metabolize hexadecane. The strain RIPI90A can desulfurize dibenzothiophene.
    - - Gammaproteobacteria
        
        Pseudomonadales
        
        Pseudomonadaceae
        
        Pseudomonas putida
        A variety of P. putida, called multiplasmid hydrocarbon-degrading Pseudomonas, is the first patented organism in the world. It demonstrates a very diverse metabolism, including the ability to degrade organic solvents such as toluene. This ability has been put to use in bioremediation. Use of P. putida is preferable to some other Pseudomonas species capable of such degradation, as it is a safe species of bacteria, unlike P. aeruginosa, for example, which is an opportunistic human pathogen.
        It has been shown in the laboratory to function as a soil inoculant to remedy naphthalene-contaminated soils.
        It has demonstrated potential biocontrol properties, as an effective antagonist of damping off diseases such as Pythium and Fusarium.
    - - Bacilli
        
        Bacillales
        
        Bacillaceae
        
        Bacillus mycoides
        Present in a wide variety of environments, especially soil.
        Capable of causing disease in some fish, and were the reported cause of an outbreak of necrotic lesions in channel catfish.
        
        Bacillus cereus
        Commonly found in soil, food and marine sponges. Name, cereus, meaning "waxy" in Latin, refers to appearance. Some strains are harmful to humans and cause foodborne illness, while other strains can be beneficial as probiotics for animals. In concert with Arbuscular mycorrhiza (and Rhizobium leguminosarum in clover), they can regenerate heavy metal soil by increasing phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium content in certain plants. Competes with other microorganisms such as Salmonella and Campylobacter in the gut. In food animals such as chickens and rabbits some harmless strains of B. cereus are used as a probiotic feed additive to reduce Salmonella in animals' intestines. This improves animals' growth as well as food safety for humans who eat them.
  - - - Agaricomycetes
        
        Polyporales
        
        Phanerochaetaceae
        
        Phanerochaete chrysporium
        Phanerochaete includes white rot fungi that are able to degrade the woody polymer lignin to carbon dioxide. This is achieved, in part, by lignin peroxidases and manganese peroxidases. These peroxidases are also able to mediate oxidation of a wide variety of organic pollutants. The genome of Phanerochaete chrysosporium was sequenced and shows the genetic potential to make over 100 cytochrome P450 monooxygenases.[7] White rot fungi have been used in bioremediation efforts to break down potentially harmful chemicals in soil and in water.[8] For example, phenol-formaldehyde is degraded by P. chrysosporium.
        
        Polyporaceae
        
        Coriolus versicolor
        Common polypore mushroom found throughout the world meaning 'of several colors'. - turkey tail mushroom. , Menthol extractions have the highest levels of polyphenols (HUMAN HEALTH), and water extractions have the most flavonoids.
        
        Agaricales
        
        Pleurotaceae
        
        Pleurotus ostreatus
        Oyster Mushroom
        The pearl oyster mushroom is also used to create mycelium bricks, mycelium furniture, and leather-like products. Oyster mushrooms were used to treat soil that had been polluted with diesel oil. The mushroom was able to convert 95% of the oil into non-toxic compounds. P. ostreatus is also capable of growing upon and degrading oxo-biodegradable plastic bags; it can also contribute to the degradation of green polyethylene.
        
        Omphalotaceae
        
        Lentinula edodes
        Shiitake Mushroom
        
        Strophariaceae
        
        Nematoloma frowardii
        The basidiomycete isolate b19, originally identified by morphological characteristics of the fruiting body as Nematoloma frowardii, efficiently produces manganese peroxidase (MNP) and is used for degradation of natural, persistent aromatic polymers (lignin, humic acids and BROWN COAL components). The N. frowardii MNP has shown good activity in conversion of xenobiotic compounds such as polycyclic hydrocarbons and trinitrotoluene.
    - - Sordariomycetes
        
        Hypocreales
        
        Hypocreaceae
        
        Trichoderma sp. (sac fungi)
        Present in all soils, where they are most prevalent culturable fungi. Many species characterized as opportunistic avirulent plant symbionts, refers to ability to form mutualistic endophytic relationships with several plant species.
        
        Nectriaceae
        
        Fusarium oxysporum
        Although their predominant role in native soils may be harmless or even beneficial plant endophytes or soil saprophytes, many strains within the complex are soil borne pathogens of plants. Government of Colombia proposed dispersing strains known as "Agent Green", as a biological weapon to eradicate coca and illegal crops. In 2001, the EU issued a declaration against the use of these biological agents in warfare. Different strains have been used for the purpose of producing nanomaterials (esp. Silver). Also has the ability to dissolve gold, then excrete and encrust itself with gold. Currently being evaluated as a possible way to help detect hidden underground gold reserves. Also used to manufacture gold nanoparticles.
      - Eurotiomycetes
        
        Eurotiales
        
        Trichocomaceae
        
        Penicillium chrysogenum
        Original source of penicillin. Common in temperate and subtropical regions and on salted food products, Mostly found in indoor environments, especially in damp or water-damaged buildings. Complex includes P. notatum (rubens) and P. meleagrinum. Penicillin appears to have evolved over millions of years, and is shared with several other related fungi. It is believed to confer a selective advantage during competition with bacteria for food sources.
        
        Aspergillus niger
        Causes disease called "black mold" on certain fruits and vegetables such as grapes, apricots, onions, and peanuts. Ubiquitous in soil and is commonly reported from indoor environments, where its black colonies can be confused with those of Stachybotrys. Aspergillosis lung disease is frequent among horticultural workers who inhale peat dust, which can be rich in Aspergillus spores. The fungus has also been found in the mummies of ancient Egyptian tombs and can be inhaled when they are disturbed. A. niger is one of the most common causes of fungal ear infections which can cause pain and temporary hearing loss. It is cultured for the industrial production of many substances. Various strains of A. niger are used in the industrial preparation of citric acid (E330). When growing in gold-mining solutions it contains cyano-metal complexes with gold, silver, copper, iron, and zinc. The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy-metal sulfides. A. niger has also been shown to be able to REMEDIATE ACID MINE DRAINAGE through biosorption of copper and manganese. Alkali-treated A. niger binds to silver to 10% of dry weight.
        
        Sandia patent frees rare-earth metals from coal ash for phones, computers. In one of nature’s unexpected bounties, a harmless food-grade solvent has been used to extract highly sought rare-earth metals from coal ash, reducing the amount of ash without damaging the environment and at the same time increasing an important national resource. Coal ash is the unwanted but widely present residue of coal-fired power. Rare-earth metals are used for a variety of high-tech equipment from smart phones to submarines. The separation method, which uses carbon dioxide, water and food-grade citric acid, is the subject of a Sandia patent application. “This technique not only recovers rare-earth metals in an environmentally harmless manner but would actually improve environments by reducing the toxicity of coal waste dotting America,” said Guangping Xu, lead Sandia researcher on the project. “Harmless extraction of rare-earth metals from coal ash not only provides a national source of materials essential for computer chips, smart phones and other high-tech products — including fighter jets and submarines — but also make the coal ash cleaner and less toxic, enabling its direct reuse as concrete filler or agricultural topsoil.” The method, if widely adopted, could make coal ash, currently an environmental pariah, into a commercially viable product, Guangping said.
        
        COAL CLEANSER — Sandia technology can be used in extracting rare-earth elements and other critical metals from coal ash. It can also be used as a coal cleanser to remove the toxic materials and sulfur. The most common acids used as chemical separators in mining — nitric, sulfuric or phosphonic acids — also are able to extract rare-earth metals from coal ash but produce large amounts of acid waste, leaving the environment in worse shape than before. “Environmentally harmful acids would raise cleanup costs beyond economic feasibility in the United States,” Guangping said. The Sandia process, which uses citric acid as a carrier for rare-earth metals so they separate from coal ash, the host material, was implemented by Guangping. The extraction process is facilitated by using supercritical carbon dioxide solvent. Guangping’s Sandia colleague Yongliang Xiong suggested citric acid, a commonly used and environmentally friendly chemical for holding metals in solution. Guangping found that in less than a day, at 70 degrees C (158 degrees F) and 1,100 pounds per square inch pressure (about 70 times ordinary atmospheric pressure), the method extracted 42% of rare-earth metals present in coal waste samples. Chinese mines, where 95% of the world’s resources of rare-earth metals are located, achieve less efficient separation while using environmentally damaging methods. “Theoretically, an American company could use this technique to mine coal and coal byproducts for rare-earth metals and compete with Chinese mining,” said Guangping. Furthermore, for U.S. national security purposes “it is probably reasonable to have alternate sources of rare-earth metals to avoid being at the mercy of a foreign supply.” BETTER EXTRACTION — Comparison of extraction efficiency between Sandia’s environmentally benign technology and existing method using strong acids, concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. Detoxifying coal ash for reuse alone should be worth the effort, he said. There’s no shortage of coal ash as a raw material. According to a paper published as late as 2016 in the journal Environmental Science and Technology, “Approximately 115 million metric tons of coal combustion products are generated annually, and this sum includes 45 million tons of fly ash.” “If we don’t detoxify and reuse the coal ash, then it will be abandoned in place and cost billions of dollars to clean up over the long term,” he said. To help make that outcome less likely, “we expect tests of our extraction techniques at larger volumes and on a variety of coal-based sources in the near future.”
        
        This technology also could open a new avenue for carbon-dioxide reutilization and sequestration, said Guangping’s Sandia colleague Mark Rigali, who with Guangping is exploring the use of citric acid and supercritical carbon dioxide to mine metals from oil and gas shales that are often rich in metals. “Using existing oil and gas fracking wells, the citric acid and supercritical carbon dioxide can be used cost-effectively to mine metals while disposing of carbon dioxide below ground,” Mark said. Subsurface storage of the carbon dioxide should keep it from entering the atmosphere and contributing to climate change.
        
        Berkheya coddii
        Ni hyperaccumulator