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Chapter 8 - Coggle Diagram
Chapter 8
Language-based frames
A clear example of a focus on use is the distinction between ‘strong’ forms – in which two or more languages are used systematically for academic purposes, including reading and writing in subject areas such as maths, science and history – and ‘weak’ forms, where the non-dominant languages are used sparingly, typically to clarify instructions or for interpersonal communication only.
The strong–weak dichotomy reminds us to pay close attention to the manner in which and the extent to which bilingual and multilingual programmes actually use each of the target languages.
Asymmetry in the use of the dominant and non-dominant languages is problematic for many programmes, and human, material and technological resources tend to be concentrated in the dominant language unless special steps are taken to address this imbalance.
Opportunities to develop strong literacy skills in non-dominant languages are often scarce, a common problem for bilingual and multilingual programmes is finding materials developers whose subject area knowledge is matched by strong literacy skills in the target language(s).
Definitions and purposes
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The purposes of bilingual and multilingual education programmes are similarly diverse, ranging from development of advanced levels of proficiency and academic achievement in both target languages to the promotion of academic skills in a dominant language but not in the pupils’ home language.
Content-based frames
Educators often emphasize the acquisition of academic content. In such cases, the languages of instruction are portrayed primarily as vehicles for intercultural communication and content learning, rather than as the defining feature of the programme.
Implicit use of students’ existing conceptual and content knowledge has been described as de facto bilingual education, in recognition of the fact that students with a strong educational background in their first language are better able to transfer or apply the conceptual knowledge developed through L1-medium education to learning in additional languages.
- Submersion education (sink-or-swim): Make little or no effort to acknowledge or accommodate the special needs of second language learners.
- Transitional bilingual education (bilingual support): Feature the temporary use of the students’ L1 or another regional language as an academic bridge to highly proficient users of the dominant language.
- Maintenance bilingual education refers to upkeep of the non-dominant language.
- The term immersion refers to programmes designed to teach content in the target language, but in a way that does not (intentionally) harm the learner’s L1.
- Community language teaching: Incorporates programmes, sometimes referred to as mother-tongue teaching and home language instruction, but has the advantage of accounting for the effects of language shift and the inclusion of non-migrants who want to study migrant languages.
- Heritage language programmes: Share the assumption that there is educational value in teaching students in and about the historic language(s) of their community. The purposes vary, from promoting oral fluency to foster intergenerational communication to developing academic literacies as a motor for advanced biliteracy and university study.
Context-based frames
Macro-level contexts: At the national level, ideological stance leads to considerable diversity in public and official attitudes to bilingual and multilingual education.
Micro-level contexts: Is more helpful in thinking about the importance of context in bilingual and multilingual educations by examining conditions at more micro levels. Applied linguists can accomplish this by examining local conditions in which specific programmes operate.
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