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Exam 3 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - glucose
        
        aerobic respiration
        
        C6H12O6 + 6 O2 --> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP + heat
        
        glycolysis
        
        convert glucose to pyruvate
        
        6-carbon glucose --> 2 3-carbon pyruvates
        
        2 ATP
        
        occurs in cytosol (NOT mitochondria)
        
        electron transport chain
        
        oxidative phosphorylation
        
        analogy: protons go to work, come back with money (ATP)
        
        ATP synthase
        
        analogy: electron turnstile
        
        when proton moves through, generates ATP
        
        waste produce: 1 H2O
        
        use electrons to move protons into intermembrane space
        
        input: electrons from NADH + FADH2
        
        (1-2). convert pyruvate to acetyl-CoA
        
        2-carbon chains
        
        1 CO2 waste product
        
        produce 1 NADH
        
        citric acid = Krebs = tricarboxylic cycle
        
        fueled by acetyl-CoA
        
        produces
        
        CO2
        
        ATP
        
        NADH + FADH2
        
        store electrons released by CAC
        
        stored electrons + energy can be used to make ATP
        
        process
        
        2-carbon acetyl CoA + 4-carbon (oxoaceletate) = 6-carbon citrate
        
        loses 1 carbon
        
        loses 1 carbon
        
        CO2
        
        NADH
        
        CO2
        
        NADH
        
        occurs in mitochondria
      - glycogen
        
        storage
        
        liver
        
        skeletal muscle
        
        glycogenolysis
        
        break down glycogen into glucose
    - - excess carbs + nutrients
        
        converted to acetyl-CoA
      - gluconeogenesis
        
        why glucose?
        
        easily converted to ATP
        
        cells prefer glucose
        
        brain + RBCs cannot metabolize fatty acids + amino acids
        
        RBCs lack mitochondria
        
        lactic acid fermentation
        
        convert pyruvate --> lactate
        
        2 ATP
        
        glycolysis
      - glycogenesis
        
        create glycogen from glucose
  - - - triglyceride
        
        3 fatty acids
        
        ketone bodies
        
        can cross blood-brain barrier
        
        made from fatty acids
        
        water-soluble
        
        produced by liver
        
        can be converted to acetyl-CoA
        
        RBCs can't use
        
        beta-oxidation
        
        breaks into 2-carbon fragments
        
        CoA attaches to them
        
        acetyl-CoA
        
        1 more item...
        
        NADH + FADH2
        
        occurs in mitochondria
        
        fatty acid carbon chains
        
        named by number of carbons
        
        short- + medium-chain FAs can cross BBB
        
        FAs
        
        decreases mitochondrial activity
        
        FA metabolism slower than glucose metabolism
        
        glycerol
        
        catabolic
        
        glycolytic pathway
        
        pyruvate
        
        acetyl-CoA
        
        2 more items...
        
        has oxygen atoms for bonding to fatty acids
        
        anabolic
        
        gluconeogenic pathway
        
        made into glucose
        
        made into triglyceride
    - - lipogenesis
        
        acetyl-CoA
        
        converted to
        
        fatty acids
        
        reverse of beta-oxidation
  - - - enzyme
        
        protease
        
        peptides
        
        amino acids
        
        all 20 can enter citric acid cycle
        
        nitrogen removed
        
        transamination
        
        1 more item...
        
        deamination
        
        1 more item...
      - can be converted to pyruvate or acetyl-CoA
    - - many but not all 20 can be synthesized from CAC chemicals
  - - - skin, vision, immune system
    - - clotting factors (liver)
    - - calcium
- - - - physical barriers
        
        secretions
        
        tears
        
        lysozomes
        
        antibacterial enzymes
        
        mucins
        
        surfactants
        
        like in lung alveoli
        
        mucus
        
        enzymes
        
        mucins
        
        thicken extracellular fluid
        
        retain water
        
        glycoproteins
        
        slow + impede pathogen movement
        
        defensins
        
        antimicrobial proteins
        
        sweat
        
        acidic pH
        
        high [Na+] = hypertonic for microbes
        
        defensins
        
        similar to detergents
        
        breaks up phospholipid bilayer membranes
        
        surrounds particles and carries them away
        
        poke holes in pathogen membranes
        
        dermicidins
        
        antimicrobial protease enzyme
        
        gastric acid
        
        hydrochloric acid
        
        denatures proteins
        
        dissolves or inhibits growth of microbes
        
        skin
        
        mucosae
      - phagocytosis
        
        types
        
        monocytes
        
        highly mobile throughout blood + tissues
        
        hungry monkey security
        
        matures/differentiates into...
        
        macrophages
        
        actions
        
        3 more items...
        
        types
        
        2 more items...
        
        eosinophils
        
        neutrophils
        
        functions
        
        granulocytes
        
        degranulation
        
        1 more item...
        
        phagocytes
        
        promote inflammation
        
        recruit other immune cells + neutrophils
        
        first responders
        
        form NETs (neutrophil extracellular traps)
        
        trap, block, impede pathogens
        
        abundant + expendable
        
        pus
        
        contains infection remnants
        
        pathogen remnants
        
        cell + tissue debris
        
        protein
        
        dead WBCs
        
        1 more item...
        
        opaque fluid
        
        how it works
        
        engulfs microbe
        
        forms vesicle
        
        lysosome with digestive enzymes fuses with vesicle
        
        ejects residual materials/waste
        
        breaks down microbe
      - complement
        
        what
        
        produced by liver
        
        always circulating (inactive if not needed)
        
        activated by pathogens
        
        class of proteins found in blood that help with immunity
        
        how
        
        recruits macrophages
        
        triggers mast cell degranulation
        
        attacks pathogenic cells
        
        cell lysis
        
        pokes holes in microbe membrane
        
        opsonization
        
        coats microbes for optimized phagocytosis
        
        inflammatory response
      - fever ("pyrexia")
        
        why
        
        adds energy + speeds up metabolism in immune cells
        
        faster reactions
        
        make body inhospitable for foreign bacteria
        
        proteins denature
        
        inhibits bacterial/viral enzymes
        
        temperature ranges
        
        normal
        
        36 - 37.5 deg
        
        fever
        
        38 deg +
        
        hypothermia
        
        < 35 deg
        
        hyperpyrexia
        
        40 deg +
        
        contributing factors
        
        sex
        
        time of day
        
        age
        
        pyrogens
        
        released by bacteria + immune cells
        
        chemicals causing body to produce more heat
        
        antipyretics
        
        NSAIDs
      - inflammation
        
        why
        
        mast cells
        
        release histamine
        
        cause vasodilation
        
        increase vessel permeability
        
        1 more item...
        
        signs
        
        loss of function
        
        calor
        
        heat
        
        dolor
        
        pain
        
        rubor
        
        redness
        
        tumor
        
        swelling
        
        what it is
        
        immune cells release chemicals that trigger this
        
        global bodily response to injury/disease
        
        heat, redness, swelling to help repair damaged tissue + eliminate harmful substances
      - movement
        
        diapedesis
        
        passage of blood cells through capillary walls
        
        often because of chemotaxis attraction
        
        squeezes into tissue
        
        chemotaxis
        
        "chemical movement"
        
        bacteria + damaged cells release chemicals + proteins
        
        attraction of phagocytes to sources of abnormal chemicals in tissue fluids
      - interferons
        
        proteins secreted by cells that communicate a need to mount an immune response
        
        increase anti-viral defenses
        
        DNA repair
        
        MHC-I/II presentation
        
        NK cell activity
        
        destruction of infected cells
      - immune surveillance
        
        MHC-I (major histocompatibility receptors class I) cells
        
        all nucleated cells have
        
        display own proteins on MHC-I receptors
        
        screening
        
        ID
        
        analogy: displaying contents of bag when going through security check
        
        RBCs + platelets naturally don't have
        
        NK (natural killer) cells
        
        recognize abnormal cells
        
        virus-infected
        
        infected cells lack MHC-I receptors
        
        tumor
        
        display abnormal proteins on MHC-I receptors
        
        cause apoptosis
        
        trigger programmed cell death
        
        inspect proteins on MHC-1 receptors
        
        self-tolerance
        
        monitoring own cells
        
        transplants
        
        different people have different MHC-I receptors
        
        match human leukocyte antigens (HLAs)
        
        HLA matching
    - - what it is
        
        how body learns to attack new pathogens
        
        slower but more specific
      - cell types
        
        antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
        
        class: professional APCs
        
        types
        
        B cells
        
        naive B cell
        
        1 more item...
        
        shuffle genes to make antibodies
        
        1 more item...
        
        dendritic cells
        
        cytoplasmic branches act as "feelers"
        
        sample + engulf surroundings
        
        if viruses detected
        
        1 more item...
        
        travel to lymph node
        
        1 more item...
        
        macrophages
        
        can sample antigens from extracellular environment
        
        displays on MHC-II receptors
        
        any cell that can display antigens on its MHC-I receptors
        
        regulatory T cells
        
        suppress activity of other immune cells
        
        important for self-tolerance
      - ANTIBODY TYPES?
- - - - gastric glands
        
        G cells
        
        gastrin
        
        peptide hormone
        
        increases stomach motility
        
        stimulates acids + enzymes production
        
        parietal cells
        
        intrinsic factor
        
        hydrochloric acid
        
        chief cells
        
        protein
        
        pepsinogen
        
        pepsin
        
        protease
        
        active enzyme
      - acidity
        
        gastric acid
        
        pH 1.5 - 3.5
        
        peptic ulcers
        
        hole/wound
        
        can occur in small intestine too
        
        causes
        
        bacteria
        
        H. pylori
        
        most people asymptomatic
      - gastric pits
        
        mucus cells (foveolar, surface mucous)
        
        protective layer
        
        mucus
      - gastric activity
        
        regulated by
        
        baroreceptors
        
        senses stretch when there's food
        
        chemoreceptors
        
        senses increased pH when there's food
    - - hepatopancreatic ampulla (of Vater)
        
        where common bile duct + major pancreatic duct meet + join
        
        connects to major duodenal papilla
      - functions
        
        endocrine
        
        pancreatic islets = islets of Langerhans
        
        secretes into bloodstream
        
        exocrine
        
        pancreatic acini
        
        secretes into pancreatic duct(s)
        
        pancreatic juice
        
        bicarbonate
        
        basic/alkaline
        
        neutralizes gastric acid
        
        enzymes
        
        alpha-amylase
        
        1 more item...
        
        lipase
        
        1 more item...
        
        protease
        
        1 more item...
        
        nuclease
        
        1 more item...
    - - cell types
        
        Kupffer cells = stellate macrophages
        
        functions
        
        release inflammatory cytokines
        
        alter other cells' responses
        
        detect liver injury + pathogens
        
        tissue macrophages (80-90%)
        
        analogy: hall monitors/security guards
        
        hepatocytes
        
        most of liver's mass (80%)
        
        functions
        
        metabolize
        
        carbs
        
        fats/lipids
        
        synthesize cholesterol
        
        synthesize bile acids
        
        2 more items...
        
        break down excess
        
        drugs/detox
        
        produce proteins
        
        serum albumins
        
        water content in tissues
        
        lipoproteins
        
        cholesterol transport (LDL, HDL)
        
        fibrinogen + clotting factors
        
        clotting
        
        complement
        
        immunity
    - - duodenum
        
        hormones
        
        cholecytokinin (CKK)
        
        release stimulated by fatty acids + amino acids
        
        inhibits gastric emptying
        
        increases bile production
        
        suppresses hunger
        
        gastrin
        
        produced in stomach
        
        increases stomach activity
        
        glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide / gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP)
        
        high levels decrease gastric acid production
        
        stimulated by high glucose duodenal content
        
        stimulates insulin release from pancreas
        
        secretin
        
        increases pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate
        
        increases bile production
        
        digestion
      - jejunum
        
        brush border enzymes
        
        maltase
        
        lactase
        
        protease
        
        sucrase
        
        villi
        
        blood vessels
        
        absorb
        
        proteins
        
        sugars
        
        lacteals
        
        from lymphatic vessels
        
        goes into lymph
        
        absorb
        
        fats
        
        chyle
        
        1 more item...
        
        chylomicrons
        
        1 more item...
        
        nutrient absorption
      - ileum
        
        more mucosae = less-organized lymph nodes
        
        absorb water + vitamins
    - - saliva
        
        enzymes
        
        salivary lipase
        
        lingual lipase
  - - - aka swallowing
      - esophageal phase
      - pharyngeal phase
      - buccal phase
    - - cephalic phase
      - gastric phase
      - intestinal phase
- - - - theca cells
        
        produce androstenedione
        
        estrone
        
        estradiol
      - granulosa cells
        
        produce inhibin
        
        contain aromatase
      - oocyte
      - zona pellucida
        
        (primary + secondary)
      - corona radiata
        
        (tertiary)
    - - ovarian cycle
        
        luteal
        
        follicular
      - uterine cycle
        
        proliferative
        
        secretory
        
        menstrual
    - - internal genitalia
        
        greater vestibular = Bartholin's glands
        
        bulb of vestibule = internal clitoris = corpus cavernosum
      - uterus
        
        ligaments
        
        round
        
        anchors uterus (one on each side)
        
        ovarian
        
        ovary - uterus
        
        suspensory
        
        ovary - pelvis
        
        broad
        
        everything
        
        uterine (Fallopian) tubes
        
        ampulla
        
        isthmus
        
        infundibulum
        
        fimbriae
      - mammary gland
        
        lactiferous ducts
        
        lactiferous sinus
        
        lobes
        
        lobules
        
        secretory alveoli
  - - - glands
        
        bulbourethral (Cowper's) gland
        
        alkaline secretions
        
        mucus + sugars
        
        seminal gland/vesicle
        
        alkaline secretions
        
        prostaglandins
        
        fructose
        
        capacitate sperm
        
        become motile
        
        prostate gland
        
        enzymes
        
        zinc
      - spermatic cord
        
        ductus (vas) deferens
        
        genitofemoral nerve
        
        arteries
        
        deferential artery
        
        testicular artery
        
        pampiniform plexus
        
        network of veins
      - urethra
        
        spongy urethra
        
        membranous urethra
        
        prostatic urethra
    - - testes
        
        muscles
        
        cremaster
        
        distance from body
        
        dartos
        
        constriction
        
        spermatogenesis
        
        path
        
        seminiferous tubules
        
        coiled into lobules
        
        rete testis
        
        maze of passageways that seminiferous tubules merge into
        
        cells
        
        spermatogenic cells
        
        spermatogonium
        
        mitosis
        
        2 more items...
        
        primary spermatocyte
        
        2 more items...
        
        nurse = Sertoli = sustentacular cells
        
        do NOT become sperm
        
        promote growth + development of
        
        form blood-testis-barrier
        
        protect developing sperm from being attacked by immune system
        
        haploids are different from regular cells
        
        produce androgen-binding protein (ABP)
        
        produce inhibin
        
        interstitial endocrine = Leydig cells
        
        produce androgens
        
        testosterone
        
        androstenedione
        
        surrounding seminiferous tubules
      - penis
        
        copora cavernosa
        
        2
        
        corpus spongiosum
        
        1
- - - - Renal artery
        
        segmental arteries
        
        interlobar arteries
        
        arcuate
        
        cortical radiate
        
        afferent
        
        1 more item...
      - Right Side In A Cul-de-sac Revs
  - - - proximal convoluted tubule
        
        reabsorption
        
        mainly active transport
        
        ions
        
        bicarbonate
        
        nutrients
        
        water
        
        lots of microvilli
        
        secretion
        
        metabolic wastes
        
        H+
        
        xenobiotics
        
        transport maximum (Tmax)
        
        max rate that substance is moved across membrane
        
        measured in amount of substance/unit time
        
        if exceeded
        
        renal glucose transport maximum
        
        glycosuria
        
        aminoaciduria
      - nephron loop( of Henle)
        
        descending limb
        
        thin
        
        impermeable to solutes
        
        permeable to water
        
        ascending limb
        
        impermeable to water
        
        thick
        
        active solute transport out
        
        reabsorption
      - distal proximal tubule
        
        few microvilli
        
        reabsorption
        
        water
        
        ions
        
        Na+
        
        Cl-
        
        bicarbonate
        
        xenobiotics
        
        fine-tuning urine composition
        
        secretion
        
        protons (H+)
        
        maintain pH
        
        K+
        
        ammonium
      - collecting ducts
        
        secretion
        
        protons (H+)
        
        K+
        
        reabsorption
        
        Na+
        
        Cl-
        
        H2O
        
        urea
        
        ADH (vasopressin) increases aquaporins
        
        increased water reabsorption
      - papillary duct
      - renal corpuscle
        
        filtration
        
        net filtration pressure
        
        glomerular hydrostatic pressure - (blood colloid osmotic pressure + capsular hydrostatic pressure)
        
        GHP - (BCOP + CHP)
        
        capsular colloid osmotic pressure
        
        0
        
        parts
        
        glomerular (Bowman's) capsule
        
        filtrate
        
        glomerulus
        
        blood
        
        filtration membrane
        
        podocytes
        
        pedicels
        
        fenestrated capillary epithelium
        
        basement membrane
    - - reabsorption
        
        reclaim important molecules + nutrients
      - secretion
        
        get rid of waste + excess into urine
      - filtration
        
        filter chemicals out of blood into urine
        
        small molecules filter through
        
        cells + large molecules kept in blood