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Paper 1 Psychology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Bowlby originally suggested that if a child does not form an attachment before two and a half years (the critical period) then an attachment would never occur.
      - Innate drive to become attached- critical period is 3-6 months- have difficulty after this point
    - - monotropy- proposed infants have 1 special emotional bond- primary attachment relationship- often mother. Form many secondary that provide emotional safetty net
      - Secondary attachments- addition to primary attachments - emotional safety net aiding psychological development
      - social releasers- smiling+baby face elicit caregiving- innate mechanisms that expain how attachments formed
      - monotropy forms internal working model- in short term gives insight into caregiver's behaviour and enables child to influence their behaviour so true partnerships is formed
      - formed in cirtical period- innate drive 3-6 months
      - In long term- acts as template for all future relationships as it generates expectations about what intimate, loving relations are like
      - parents must be attached to their infants to ensure cared for and survive- and those who look after offspring likely to produce subsequent generations
      - Continuity hypothesis- individuals strongly attached in infancy continue to be socially+emotionally competent- those not have more difficulties
      - Attachment forms as it's important survival function- infant not attached less protected
      - AO3
        
        Support for monotropy
        
        Research support- hierarchical model of attachment places emphasis on 1 central person higher than others more likely than multiple attachments
        
        Central person special significance+contributes to healthy emotional development
        
        Sensitive period rather than critical
        
        Rutter et al not impossible to form attachments after critical period
        
        sensitive period term used instead- as developments can take place outside the critical period window
    - - a mental representation of our relationship with our primary caregiver that becomes a template for future relationships and allows individuals to predict, control and manipulate their environment.
    - - This is called mother love and explains how attachment s formed
      - Operant conditioning- when infant fed drive is reduced and produces pleasure- negaticve reinforcement as rewarding- behaviour gthayt led to being fed repeated and food primary reinforcer
      - If NS consistently associated with UCS will produce same response- becomes CS- e.g person who feed infant now associated with food- just seeing them gives them pleasure CR
      - person who supplies food associated with avoiding discomfort and becomes secondary reinforcer and source of reward
      - Innate stimulus food which produces innate response of pleasure- food is UCS and please UCR- during early weeks certain things become associated with food- NS- e.g mother
      - Social learning theory- modelling used to explain- children observe parents' affectionate behaviour and imitate this
      - Classical conditioning- attachment through association between mother and food through innate stimulus response
      - Deliberately instruct children how to behave and reward appropriate behaviours such as giving kisses+hugs
      - Behaviourists suggest all behaviour is learned either through classical or operant conditioning
      - AO3
        
        Based on research with animals
        
        based on Pavlov's research on dogs and Skinner's research on pigeons
        
        Bheaviourists argue humans no different from animals in terms of learning
        
        non-behaviourists argue attachments too complex to be explained in simple terms
        
        May be oversimplified version of human behaviour+attachment
        
        Bowlby's may offer better explanation
        
        Explains why attachments form whereas learning theory only explains how+outlines benefits of attachment
        
        Provides more complete explanation of attachment undermining learning theory
        
        Many advantages compared to learner theory
      - Proposes all behaviour learned rather than inborn- born with blank slates
  - - - Found secure attachment most common in all countries- insecure avoidant next in every except Israel+Japan(collectivist at time)
      - Concluded global pattern across cultures similar to that found in US
      - 2,000 strange situations in 8 different countries- looking for cultural differences
      - Supports secure attachment is best for healthy social and emotional development- support attachment as innate and biological process
      - Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg 1988- 2 Dutch psychologists- meta analysis of 32 studies of attachment behaviour
    - - Secure B- 66%
        
        When anxious seek close bodily contact with caregiver and easily soothed- reluctant to leave their side prematurely
        
        Comfortable and seek interactions and intimacy- use caregiver as secure base to explore from and function independently
        
        harmonious and cooperative interactions with caregiver- not likely to cry when left and show some distress when with stranger
      - Insecure-avoidant A- 22%
        
        avoid social interaction and intimacy with others
        
        Show little response to separation and don't seek proximity on reunion- if picked up show little tendency to cling or resist being put down
        
        Happy to explore with or without presence of caregiver- high levels of anxiousness
      - Insecure-resistant C- 12%
        
        seeking and resisting intimacy and social interaction
        
        respond to separation with immediate and intense distress and behave similarly towards strangers
        
        On reunion conflicting for and against contact- angrily resist being picked up but try and to maintain proximity
    - - Individual differences
        
        took place in America which indvidualist culture whereas collectivist cultures may have different responses/attachment styles
        
        may have different personalities that affect how attachment style presents
      - 4th type of attachment discovered
        
        Type D Insecure disorganised
        
        Some children showed strong attachment behaviour initially followed by avoidance or looking fearful to caregiver
        
        Meta analysis of 80 studies in US found evidence of this new attachment style Ijzendoorn
    - - Focused on child behaviours when the caregiver leaves the room- separation anxiety
      - When the caregiver returns- reunion behaviour
      - used 2 way mirror, multiple researchers, controlled observations, 8 episodes total
      - When a stranger attempts to console them- stranger anxiety
      - 106 middle class infants
  - - - Monkeys fed from wire mother spent little time getting milk and then returned to cloth mother
      - When frightened they clung to the cloth mother and when playing kept one foot on cloth mother for reassurance- attach to one offering comfort not who feeds them
      - All 8 spent most time with cloth covered even if didn't have milk bottle
      - recorded amount of time each infant spent with 2 different monkeys
      - 8 monkeys studied for 165 days- 4 milk bottle on cloth covered mothers and plain wire for the other 4
      - Created 2 wire monkeys 1 wrapped in soft cloth
      - Sought to demonstrate mother attachment wasn't based on feeding bond between mother and infant as predicted by learning theory
      - motherless monkeys developed abnormally- socially abnormal froze or fled other monkeys- didn't show normal mating behaviour or cradle their babies
    - - He marked the 2 groups to distinguish them- they were imprinted on him even when natural mother was present
      - One fgollowed him others the mother- his showed no recognition of natural mother
      - Those in incubator saw Lorenz first when hatched and started following him around
      - Critical period for imprinting- seen within first 2 days- binds young animal to caregiver
      - 1 group left with natural mother while other placed in incubator
      - Process irreversible, long lasting
      - Tested imprinting- took gosling eggs and divided into 2 groups
    - - Research support for imprinting
        
        They became imprinted on the gloves
        
        supports young animals not born with predisposition to imprint on specific object but on any moving thing during critical window
        
        Leghorn chicks exposed to yellow gloves for feeding for first few weeks
      - can it be generalised to humans?
        
        humans differ in important ways
        
        number of studies however have found observations of animal behaviour are mirrored in studies of humans
        
        E.g Scahfer+Emerson infants not most attached to person that fed them
        
        Animal studies useful pointer in understanding human behaviour but always seek confirmation from human research
  - - - Progress compared to 52 British adopted children - adopted in UK before 6 months
      - Studied 165 children- 111 adopted before age of 2 and 54 were adopted by 4- tested at age 4,6,11 and 15 to test physical, cognitive and social development
      - At time of adoption lagged behind British counterparts on all measures- smaller, weighed less, mentally retarded, deprivation dwarfism
      - Spent days alone with little cognitive or emotional stimulation- malnourished and uncared for= adopted by western families
      - By 4 some had caught up with British counterparts- true for almost all adopted before age of 6 months
      - Rutter and Songua-Barke 2010- Romanians encouraged in 60s to have large families- couldn't be supported+regime collapsed- 100,000 orphans in 600 orphanages
      - Those adopted after 6 months showed disinhibited attachments and problems with peer relationships
      - Disinhibited attachment- multiple caregivers/lack of attachment figure will be attention seeking and inappropriate familiarity with strangers
    - - Intellectual under-functioning- cognitive development affected by emotional deprivation
      - Disinhibted attachment- insecure attachment kids don't discriminate between ppl they choose as attachment figures- treat strangers with inappropriate familiarity+attention seeking
      - Physical underdevelopment- physically small- lack of emotional care is cause of deprivation dwarfism
      - Poor parenting- Harlow's monkeys raised with surrogate mother went on to become poor parents
      - AO3
        
        Real world application
        
        lack of substitute maternal figure- different nurses that came in and out to look after her
        
        Robertson+Robertson studied child in hospital for TB for 8 days- became withdrawn and depressed
        
        Lack of another emotional figure/connection
        
        Counters effects of institutionalisation being irreversible
        
        Rutter et al
        
        111 adopted before age of 2 by 4 had caught up with UK children
        
        by age 11 reduction in disinhibited attachment
    - - None of control group had experienced separations
      - separations were continual/repeated stays in foster homes or hospitals where they had been scarcely visited
      - 86% of affectionless thieves experienced frequent separations from their mothers compared to 17% of other thieves
      - Suggests early separations linked to affectionless psychopathy- lack of continuous care may cause emotional maladjustment
      - Suggested some thieves were affection less psychopaths- lacked normal signs of affection, shame, responsibility- enabled them to steal as didn't matter to them
      - AO3
        
        Lack validity
        
        changes have occurred since then
        
        e.g mothers encouraged to work as then stayed at home
        
        Temporal validity conducted in 1944
        
        Real world application
        
        Robertson+Robertson- before his research children separated from parents when in hospital
        
        filmed 2 year old during 8 days in hospital- frequently distressed+ begged to go home
        
        Their work led to major social change in way children were cared for in hospital
      - He studied 88- 44 had been caught stealing- 44 thieves
      - 1944- analysed cases of patients in clinic where he worked- those who attended were emotionally maladjusted
  - - - 56% secure, 25% avoidant and 19% resistant- positive correlation between attachment types and love experiences
      - Found relationship between conception of love+attachment type- securely attached tended to have positive internal working model
      - Asked questions about attitudes towards love- assessing internal working model- 620 responses, more women than men(415,205)
      - AO3
        
        Determinist
        
        says insecure attached are 'doomed' to experience emotionally unsatisfactory relationships as adults
        
        Suggests early experiences have fixed effect on later adult relationships
        
        Research correlational
        
        research linking internal working model with later relationship experience is correlational rather than experimental
        
        Can't say they are of cause and effect
        
        Could be innate temperament instead- intervening variable
      - Asked questions on current attachment experiences and history to idenitify current+childhood attachment types
      - Hazan and Shaver 1987- Love Quiz in Rocky Mountain News
    - - Bowlby's concept of internal working model similar to schema
      - infant learns about relationship from experience- learns what relationships are and how partners in relationship behave towards each other
      - Operable as it's used to predict behaviour of other people in future
- - - - General store for the model
      - PL and VSS needed somewhere to hold info that relates to both visual and acoustic info
      - Added later in 2000
    - - Pays attention to a stimulus- then encoded into working memory
    - - Used for when you have to plan a spatial task- visual or spatial is temporarily stored here
      - Inner scribe- deals with storing the arrangement of objects in the visual field
      - Contains visual cache- stores info about visual items
    - - Deals with auditory info and order of info
    - - 4 chunks in young adults- most adults can repeat 7 digits in correct order
    - - Direct the brain's resources to 1 o the 3 slave systems
      - Contains phonological store which holds words you hear
      - Articulatory process- used for words heard or seen- are repeated silently by an inner voice
    - - Supporting case studies
        
        Other patient SC good learning abilities but unable to learn word pairs presented out loud
        
        Damage to phonological loop they performed better on spatial tasks than those involving visual imagery
        
        Study on man called KF whose short term forgetting of auditory info was greater than his forgetting of visual info
      - Evidence using brain damaged patients
        
        Individuals may have difficulties paying attention and therefore under perform on certain tasks
        
        Matters as results of single cases studies are difficult to replicate and generalise to healthy population
        
        process of brain injury extremely traumatic- may itself change behaviour so perform worse on certain tasks
  - - - Geiselman et al- interviewing technique- 4 components
        
        2) Report everything- interviewee encouraged to report every single detail without editing anything out even if seems irrelevant
        
        3) change order- interviewee asked to consider alternative timeline of incident- e.g reversing the order
        
        1) mental reinstatement of original context- interviewee encouraged to mentally recreate psychical and psychological environment of original incident
        
        4) change perspective- interviewee asked to recall incident from another perspective
      - AO3
        
        Research on effectiveness
        
        But may be due to individual elements of the CI rather than the whole process
        
        Suggests ppts interviewed with combo of report everything and mental reinstatement were higher than other conditions
        
        Meta analysis of 53 studies found increase of 34% in amount of correct info from CI
        
        Individual differences- criticism
        
        Reported CI reported more info for older ppts
        
        older adults associated with negative stereotypes surrounding memory so overly cautious about reporting info
        
        CI stresses importance of reporting an detail so it may overcome these difficulties
        
        More effective for older people, in comparison to younger ppl
  - - - Way in which info is changed+ stored in memory
    - - Amount of info that can be stored
    - - Length of time that info is held in the memory store
  - - - Unlimited in duration and capacity
      - Rehearsal keeps info in STM and will create a LTM- the more info's rehearsed the better it's remembered
      - Info stored in LTM can be returned to STM by retrieval
      - Coding- way in which info is changed and stored in memory
    - - Info held here for immediate tasks
      - Limited duration of 18 seconds
      - Capacity limited
    - - Where info is held at each of the 5 senses
      - Duration limited- max 2 seconds
      - Capacity very large- most info lost tho as constantly receiving info
      - If attention is focused on sensory stores- data transferred to STM
    - - Supporting evidence
        
        research found prefrontal cotrex active during STM but not LTM tasks
        
        More research found duration of STM 7+/- 2 seconds and LTM is 48 years
        
        Studies using brain scanning techniques show difference between STM+LTM
        
        Supports the idea that STM and LTM are separate stores
      - Overly simplistic
        
        However researchs shows no. of qualitatively different kinds of LTM and each behave differently
        
        Maintenance rehearsal can explain semantic memory in LTM but not episodic memories
        
        Suggests both are single unitary stores
        
        Therefore too simplistic- different types of memory
- - - - Minority consistent- others reassess the situation and consider the issue more carefully
      - Shows there must be a reason why they're support it+ confident to maintain over time
    - - Suggests certainty, confidence and courage in face of hostile majority
      - Joining minority has greater cost for individual than staying with majority
    - - minorities typically powerless compared to majority so must negotiate their position with majority rather than try to enforce it
      - Rigid negotiating styles- refuse to compromise, risk being perceived as dogmatic/refusing to consider other opinions
      - Too flexible and too prepared to compromise seen as inconsistent- neither effective at persuading majority
    - - Procedure
        
        showed blue slides
        
        in consistent experiment confederated called the blue slides green
        
        each group 4 participants 2 confederates
        
        Inconsistent called slides green 2/3 and 1/3 blue. In control 6 participants called slides blue throughout
      - Findings
        
        after participants individually asked to sort 16 coloured discs blue to green
        
        3 unambiguously blue or green- 10 ambiguous
        
        Consistent- 8% said green- inconsistent had little influence
        
        Had different judgements- those in consistent judged them as greener than inconsistent
    - - Research support
        
        Trial jury found confederates compromised with majority were most influential
        
        Minorities relatively powerless, must negotiate rather than reinforce their position
        
        Flexibility important and has research support
        
        Balance- too flexible can weaken influence and suggests caved to majority
      - Not process the minority's message
        
        if express different view might consider their view carefully to understand it
        
        however don't spend much time processing why message is different to the majority
        
        Don't process minority message deeply
        
        Therefore, minority's message less influential than majority
  - - - In Milgram if in teams of 3 and 2 confederates- if they resisted the ppt withdrew and only 10% continued to max 450V
      - Disobedient peers act as role models for individual to model their own behaviour
      - Asch found presence of social supports enables individual to resist conformity pressure form majority
    - - Internal- control events in life- what happens consequence of own ability+effort- rely less on opinion of other and more able to resist social influence
      - External- what happens determined by external factors e.g influence or luck- more passive and fatalistic attitude- less independent and more likely to accept influence of others
      - Measure of high internal to high external
      - Person's perception of control over their own behaviour
      - High internals seekers of info useful to them- less likely to rely on opinion of others- less vulnerable to social influence
      - High internals- more achievment oriented- leaders
      - High internals- more able to resist coercion from others
    - - Research support social support
        
        However able to resist if 1 or 2 friends also resisted
        
        If have ally who resits and goes against majority give confidence to resist influence and not conform
        
        individusals with majority friends who drink alcohol more likely to engage in drunkness and binge drinking
        
        shows social support increases likelihood of someone resisting
      - Research support for locus of control
        
        those who scored higher on external LOC more easily persuaded and conforming than internal
        
        shows relationship and how likely to be influenced by forms of social influence
        
        Found positive correlation for relationship between scores of internal/external and scores on measures of persuasion, social influence and conformity
  - - - Key study Elms and Milgram 1966
        
        Participants- 20 obedient+ 20 defiant who had taken part in Milgram's experiment
        
        Each completeled MMPI scale and F scale- asked open ended questions about childhood and attiutdes to experimenter and learner in original study
        
        Aim- see whether participants high in authoritarianism are more likely to obey an authority figure
        
        little difference between obedient and defiant participants on MMPI variables- found higher levels of authoritarianism in obedient
        
        Obedient group higher on the trait of authoritarianism
      - AO3
        
        Social context more important
        
        Showed changing social context, proximity, location etc caused them to obey/resist regardless of personality type
        
        Suggest social context more important- primary cause of differences in levels of obedience
        
        Milgram didn't believe dispositional evidence strong enough
        
        Research support
        
        Elms and Milgram- higher levels of authoritarianism in obedient
        
        had values consistent with authoritarian personality- less close to fathers+more negative terms- saw authority figure as more admirable
        
        More authoritarian participants more obedient
      - Authoritarian personality
        
        F stands for fascist
        
        people who scored high on the F scale were raised by parents who used an authoritarian parenting style
        
        Right wing Authoritarianism- cluster of 3 personality variable which narrowed the concept of authoritarian personality
        
        Explanation for why some individuals require little pressure in order to obey- used California F scale
        
        1) Conventionalism- adherence to conventional norms and values
        
        2) Authoritarian aggression- aggressive feelings towards people who violate these norms
        
        3) Authoritarian submission- uncritical submission to legitimate authorities
        
        RWA testsed by giving themselves levels of shock when made a mistake on learning task- those who had high RWA scores were more willing to shock themselves at higher levels
    - - Participants
        
        40 participants
      - Procedure
        
        Told study of how punishment affects learning- 2 experimental confederates, experimenter and man as volunteer
        
        Participant drew with other and always teacher- required to test learner and each time got wrong administer electric shocks
        
        Learner would give mainly wrong answers and receive fake shocks- at 300 volt would pound on wall and give no response
        
        if teacher asked to stop, experimenter prodded them to continue
      - Aim
        
        How far people would go in obeying instruction if it involved harming another person
      - Finding
        
        Predicted only few would go beyond 150 volts
        
        26/40 went to max of 450
        
        All went to 300- only 5 stopped there
      - Conclusion
        
        People would obey instructions from those they saw as legit authority, even if instructions were to harm another person
      - AO3
        
        Ethical issues
        
        Protection of participants- exposed to stressful situations that have potential to cause psychological harm
        
        right to withdraw- claimed free to leave at any time but prods from experimenter made more difficult- felt had no choice but to continue
        
        Deception- believed shocking real person- unaware learner was a confederate
        
        Lacks historical validity
        
        later research found levels of obedience identical to Milgram's
        
        Shows has temporal reliability as findings are equally applicable to today
        
        carried out 50 years ago- questions whether relevant to modern day
    - - Location
        
        Psychology lab at Yale University- gave confidence in integrity- said wouldn't have shocked if elsewhere
        
        Examine this Milgram moved study to run down office only dropped slightly with 48% giving max shock
      - Power of uniform
        
        Female researcher dressed in either police uniform, business exec and beggar- stopped ppl in street and asked for money for expired parking meter
        
        in uniform 72% obeyed, 48% as business exec and 52% as beggar
        
        Recognisable and convey power/authority
      - Proximity
        
        In touch proximity where forced learner's hand on shock plate only 30%
        
        If orders given over phone only 21% went to max- defied
        
        Teacher+learner in same room obedience fell to 40% as saw learner's anguish directly
    - - Agentic state- individuals allow someone else to direct their behaviour- pass responsibility- shift from autonomous to agentic state when confronted with authority figure
        
        Self image affects this as feel need to maintain positive self image- actions not their responsibility so can act 'guilt free'
        
        Social etiquette regulates behaviour in experiment
      - Legitimacy of authority- Someone perceived in position of social control within situation can cause someone to shift to agentic state
        
        Redefines a situation as people accept definitions of a situation provided by legit authority- follow this figure to define its meaning
        
        If commands potentially harmful/destructive to be perceived as legit must occur with form of institutional structure so PP continues obedience and trust
      - AO3
        
        Real life obedience
        
        My Lai massacre in Vietnam War- Lieutenant defended actions as just following orders
        
        Massacred unarmed villagers- My Lai village
        
        Real life application
        
        Calley didn't accept guilt and had been following orders of superior
        
        Agentic state or cruelty?
        
        Stanford Prison experiment escalated level of cruelty despite no obvious authority figure present
        
        Prisoners became more submissive and guard more cruel- had no authority figure so expressed own sadistic impulses
        
        Milgram detected signs of cruelty among participants
        
        Expose unflattering aspects of human nature and question whether agentic state valid explanation for cruelty towards PP
- - - - E.g relaxation instead of fear- anxiety reduced, they are desensitised
      - Taught relaxation techniques and also progressive muscle relaxation where 1 muscle at a time is relaxed
      - Counder conditioning- patient taught through classical conditioning to associate the phobic stimulus with a new response
      - Desensitisation hierarchy- introducing person to feared situation 1 step at a time- practice relaxation so situation is more familiar, less overwhelming and anxiety diminishes
      - Phobics introduced to the feared stimulus gradually and through counter conditioning learn a new association
    - - This is an example of negative reinforcement (escaping the unpleasant situation)
      - The individual avoids the anxiety created by, the dog, by avoiding them entirely
      - The avoidance of the phobic stimulus reduces fear and is thus reinforcing
      - The likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is increased if the outcome is rewarding
      - Phobia is maintained through operant condtioning
    - - Phobia acquired through association
      - Association between neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus results in new stimulus response being learned
      - E.g being bitten by a dog and how this develops to a fear of dogs
      - Being bitten UCS creates fear UCR
      - Dog NS is now associated with being bitten UCS
      - Dog is not the CS which produces the fear response which is now the CR
      - UCS- unconditioned stimulus. UCR- unconditioned response
      - NS- neutral stimulus. CR- conditioned response. CS- conditioned stimulus
    - - One long session where the person experiences the phobia at its worst
      - E.g someone afraid of clowns
      - First step to place them in a room full of clowns and remain in position until they become calm
      - Then these techniques applied in vivo (actual exposure) or virtual reality- lasts until they've calmed down
      - Fear response has time limit, as adrenaline levels naturally decrease a new stimulus response link can be learned- feared stimulus is now associated with non anxious response
    - - Both processes needed to explain why phobias begin in the first place
      - First stage is classical conditioning and then operant conditioning
      - Mowrer proposed 2 process model to explain how phobias are learned
    - - Effectiveness of SD
        
        75% of patients with phobias respond to SD
        
        Suggests in vivo techniques more successful than ones just using pictures or imagining the feared stimulus
        
        successful for range of phobic disorders
        
        Not appropriate for all phobias- those that have an underlying evolutionary survival component (fear of dark)
      - Reductionist
        
        2 process model reduces explanation of phobias to just behaviourist framework
        
        Is cognitive aspects to phobias that can't be explained by behavioural approach
        
        Cognitive suggests may develop as consequence of irrational thinking
        
        more holistic cognitive approach- leads to CBT which may be more successful than behaviourist treatments
  - - - SERT gene affects the transport of serotonin
      - If SERT gene faulty, it creates lower levels of serotonin- obesession
      - If faulty COMT gene, it produces higher levels of dopamine- compulsions
      - Unlikely caused by 1 gene alone more holistic diathesis stress mode- gene creates vulnerability for OCD and then other factors (stressors) affect what condition develops
      - COMT gene regulates production of neurotransmitter dopamine
    - - low levels of serotonin linked to OCD- SSRI's that increase serotonin levels shown to reduce OCD symptoms
      - Orbitofrontal cortex responsible for sending signals to the thalamus about worrying things
      - Caudate nucleus responsible for suppressing signals from the orbitofrontal cortex
      - high dopamine levels in people with OCD
      - If caudate nucleus is damaged, it fails to suppress minor worry signals and thalamus is alerted, sending signals back to OFC, acting as worry circuit
    - - Anti anxiety benzodiazepines- reduce activity, sow activity of CNS by enhancing activity of GABA. when GABA locks on receptor opens channel increasing flow of chloride ions into neuron- making more relaxed
      - Antidepressants- tricyclics block transporter mechanism that reabsorbs serotonin and nor adrenaline into presynaptic cell after firing. So more neurotransmitters left in synapse, prolonging activity and transmission of next impulse- more side effects than SSRI's so used as a 2nd
      - Antidepressants SSRI's- increase levels of serotonin, reduce anxiety, preferred drug for anxiety treatment
      - D-cycloserine- reduces anxiety and helpful for OCD when in conjunction with psychotherapy
    - - Family+twin studies
        
        However concordance rate never 100%- shows environmental factors must also play a role- occurrence of OCD runs in families rather than specific symptoms
        
        found those with 1st degree relatives with OCD had 5x greater risk of having it themself
        
        80 patients with OCD- 343 first degree relatives and compared with 75 control ppts without mental illness and 300 of their relatives
        
        evidence for genetic basis from studies of 1st degree relatives and twin studies
      - Short term relief
        
        doesn't provide a lasting cure- research found patients relapsed within few weeks if medication stopped
        
        However meta analysis showed SSRI's more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms
        
        only gives short term relief
        
        Drug therapies can be used in short term to reduce symptoms but not long term cure
  - - - E.g calories consumed in one day, IQ
      - Strength- offers prospect of clear guidelines for identifying behaviours as normal and abnormal
      - Normal distribution curve shows majority of ppl in middle (normal) and few fall either end, if they do they're defined as abnormal
      - Weakness- some abnormal behaviours desirable(IQ), subjectively determined
    - - E.g irrationality, observer discomfort, unpredictability
      - Strength- considers thoughts+feelings of individual+ issues facing- doesn't make judgement on predefined list of symptoms
      - Day to day inability to cope- distress leading to dysfunction
      - Weakness- Who judges what functioning adequately is?, cultural validity
    - - Weakness- temporal+cultural validity, may be result of economic or social conditions
      - Strength is that's flexible dependent on situation and age
      - E.g wearing bikini in supermarket
      - Social norms set of rules for behaviour based on moral and conventional standards within society- judged by dominant culture
    - - Jahoda suggested defined mental health same as physical health- 6 categories
      - E.g Self attitudes, personal growth+self actualisation, integration, autonomy, accurate perception of reality, environmental mastery
      - Strengths- focuses on positive+desirable behaviours rather than just negative+undesirable
      - Weakness- unrealistic criteria, cultural differences