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Paper 3 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Also act on dopamine system by blocking D2 receptors, but only temporarily occupy the receptors and rapidly disassociate to allow normal dopamine transmission
      - AO3- atypical claim to be better than typical- patients experience fewer side effects- less likely to produce extrapyramidal effects- patients more likely to continue with medication
      - lower risk of extra pyramidal side effects, beneficial effect on negative symptoms+cognitive impairment, suitable for treatment resistant patients
      - AO3- extrapyramidal side effects- most common resemble features of Parkinsons- more than half taking typical experience this- can be distressing or stop them taking antipsychotics
    - - 80% blocakge of D2 receptors cause tardive dyskinesia- condition where face/body make sudden, irregular movement u can't control
      - by reducing stimulation of dopamine, anti psychotic drugs eliminate hallucinations+delusions
      - reduce effects of dopamine, so reduce symptoms of schizophrenia
      - Dopamine antagonists- bind but don't stimulate dopamine receptors and so reduce symptoms of schizophrenia
  - - - Secondary reinforcers- initially of no value to individual but acquire reinforcing properties due to being paired with primary reinforcers
      - In token economy the tokens given out when a patient engages in a target behaviour are secondary reinforcers
      - primary reinforcers- anything that give pleasure (food/comfort) or remove unpleasant states (alleviate boredom). Don't depend on learning in order to acquire their reinforcing value
      - neutral token given value by being presented with or before reinforcing stimulus(food,privileges) by pairing them it acquires the same reinforcing properties- becomes secondary reinforcer
      - Based on operant conditioning- involves positive reinforcement
      - when perform desirable target behaviour clinicians award them tokens, can be exchanged for privileges/rewards- more items it can be exchanged for the more powerful it becomes
      - Exchange of tokens for backup rewards chosen by clinician important- frequent exchanges period mean patients are quickly reinforced and target behaviour increase in frequency
      - AO3- ethical issues- clinicians exercise control over food privacy- basic human rights that can't be violated regardless of positive consequences that might be achieved by token exchange
      - AO3- only works in hospital setting- 24 hour care monitored- give rewards straight after target behaviour whereas outpatients only receive treatment few hours a day- not as effective
    - - 3) ABC model- gives explaantion of activating events A that cause their emotional+behavioural B consequences C- these can then be rationalised, disputed and changed
      - 4) normalisation- info that others have unusual experiences with hallucinations+delusions reduce anxiety and isolation- feel less alienated and stigmatised
      - 2) engagement- therapist empathises with patient's perspective+ distress- stresses explanations for distress can be developed
      - 5) critical collaborative analysis- therapist uses questioning to help patient understand illogical deductions and conclusions
      - 1) assessment- patients expresses thoughts about experience to therapist- set goals
      - 6) developing alternative explanations- develop own explanations for unhealthy assumptions
      - AO3- lack of availability- survey study of 187 only 14 had been offered CBT- 1/10 in some areas of country
      - encouraged to trace back to origins of symptoms in order to understand how they might have developed
      - AO3- advantages over standard care- reduced re hospitalisation rates up to 18 months following end of treatment- reduces symptom severity+improves social functioning
      - usually delivered 1to1, 16 sessions recommended, help establish links between thought feelings, symptoms+level of functioning- consider alternative ways
    - - KEY STUDY- Pharoah- meta analysis of 53 studies investigating effectiveness of family intervention- compared family therapy to standard care
      - Found mixed results on mental state- some reported improvement compared to standard care, others didn't. Family intervention increased patients' compliance with medication
      - Reducing anger+guilt-teach anger management. Maintaining reasonable expectations- remind family of illness severity,remove burden of care. Set appropriate limits- encourage to set limit whilst maintaining degree of separation when needed
      - Didn't have much effect on social functioning e.g living independently
      - Reducing emotional climate0 coach family in reducing expression of hostile emotions. Teach family to anticipate/solve problems-look for patterns of behaviour that may indicate early signs of relapse, should have low EE
      - Reduction in relapse and hospital admission during treatment and 24 months after with family therapy
      - Psychoeducation- helping person+carers understand+deal with illness. Form alliance with family members- relatives who care for person with schizophrenia- reduce blame felt by family
      - AO3- increases medication compliance- Pharoah- increase likeliness of taking anti psychotic medication- but how much improvement due to therapy and not just taking medication
      - AO3- carers in low EE might be as effective- suggest might not be anymore effective than good standard of care
      - Involves providing family members with info about schizophrenia and how to support- attempts to reduce likelihood of relapse
      - offered for between 3-12 months, at least 10 sessions- aim to reduce level of EE within family
  - - - Cognitive habits/beliefs that cause the individual to evaluate info inappropriately- delusions and hallucinations
    - - Relate irrelevant events to themselves and arrive at false conclusions-muffled voices interpreted as criticising them
      - Hallucinations- focus excessive attention on auditory stimuli and have higher expectancy for occurrence of voice than others
      - Critical characteristic is the degree to which the individual perceives themselves as central component in events and jump to conclusion about external events
      - Find difficult to distinguish between imagery and sensory based perception- more likely to misattribute source of self generated auditory experience to external source
      - Delusion- in formation of delusion patient's interpretations of their experiences are controlled by inadequate information processing
      - AO3- evidence for positive symptoms have origins in faulty cognition- delusional patients showed biases in info processing-jumping to conclusions and lack of reality testing
      - Propose that abnormalities in cognitive function key component of schizophrenia
      - AO3-faulty cognition supported by success of CBT- effective for psychosis- more than anti psychotic in reducing symptom severity and improving levels of social functioning
    - - AO3- family relationships- Tiernari adoption study- adopted children with schizophrenic parents more likely to become ill than non schizophrenic biological parents- also needs environmental conditions, not genetic vulnerability alone
      - AO3- individual differences- not all patients in high EE families relapse and not all in low avoid relapse- not all equally vulnerable
      - Expressed emotion- talk about patient in critical/hostile way that suggest over involvement- 4 times more likely to relapse if returning to family with high EE
      - child's ability to respond incapacitated as one invalidates the other- prevent development of internally coherent construction of reality- long run schizophrenic symptoms
      - E.g mum telling them she loves them but also pulling face of disgust- 2 conflicting messages- one affection one animosity
      - Double bind theory- suggest children who receive contradictory messages from parents more likely to develop schizophrenia
      - Presence of problems within family that contribute to relapse rates in recovering schizophrenics
  - - - Diathesis- genetic component vulnerability- supported by twins- identical twin of person wit schizo greater risk of developing it than sibling
      - However 50% if one diagnosed the other isn't showing environmental factors must also play a role in whether it develops
      - interaction between biological+environmental influences= have low to high genetic vulnerability but whether it develops partly determined by this and amount of stresses experienced
      - Stress-life events can trigger- level of trauma as child and high level of urbanisation both linked to developing schizophrenia
      - Conditional on other factor e.g pre-existing genetic risk/biological vulnerability
      - minor stressors may lead to onset if they are highly vulnerable or major stressful event in someone low in vulnerability- diathesis and stress add together to produce the disorder
      - KEY STUDY Tienari et al- hospital record of 20,000 Finnish women admitted to psychiatric hospitals, identified those diagnosed at least once with schizophrenia
      - recorded who had offspring adopted away- compared high risk group to low risk group- of 303 adoptees 14 had developed schizophrenia- 11 from high risk group
      - AO3 limitations of Tienari- assessed using OPAs scale were assessing family functioning only at one given point in time- fails to determine how much stress due to family or adoptee themself
      - AO3- urban differences- research found no urban rural difference in mental health among women in New Zealand
- - - - Legal system
        
        attempted to justify murder by claiming behaviour determined by inherited aggressive tendencies
        
        Mobley tried to claim was due to family history of violence- rejected and sentence to death- legal system based on free will
        
        Undermines truly determinist position as would allow individuals to excuse behaviour
      - Biological determinism incomplete explanation
        
        neither genetic or environmental sole determine in behaviour- studies that compare identical twins found 40% concordance rate in MZ twins for schizophrenia
        
        Would expect 100% concordance rate- suggest 60% caused by other factors
        
        Means interactionist better approach that represents reality rather than determinist
  - - - Sample size 1 person- study of Individuals
      - Aims to identify patterns of behaviour, thought and emotion of individual over time and contexts
      - Uses unstructured interviews, case studies and thematic analysis
      - Used by Freud Little Hans
      - Qualitative data- focus on insight into human behaviour from 1 individual rather than numerical data on multiple people
    - - Sample size large number of people
      - aims to make generalisations/develop laws/theories about their behaviour
      - Method- graphs, statistic analysis and questionnaire
      - Quantitative data- based on numbers- measures of central tendency+dispersion, graphs+statistical analysis
      - used by biological approach- portray basic principles of how body and brain work- e.g stress response
    - - Waiting for Jo Hadley to stop being a bitch
  - - - Informed consent- may not always comprehend what is involved
      - Equitable treatment- should be treated equally, resources vital to participants' wellbeing shouldn't be witheld from one and not other
      - Deception-self deception whereby research my lead people to form untrue stereotypes
      - Methodology- scientists aware but media and public may not- might shape important social policy but poorly done
      - Confidentiality- may be less willing to divulge info in future if confidentiality breached
      - Privacy- may lead to social policies that are invasion of people's private lives (aids)
      - Scientific freedom- duty to engage in research but has o obligation to harm ppts and institutions in society
      - Ownership of data- problems with determining ownership involve sponsorship of research and public accessibility of data
      - Values- differ in orientation towards subjective (idiographic) and objective (scientific) approaches. may arise when clash in such values between scientist and recipient
      - Risk/benefit ratio- risks/costs should be minimised but problems arise in determining risks as well as benefits
    - - Sieber and Stanley identified 4 aspects in research process in which ethical issues with social consequences may occur
      - e.g Bowlby's monotropic theory- created guilty mothers
      - Studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications, either directly for participants in research, or class of individuals represented by the research
      - 1) research question- asking research question may be damaging to members of particular racial group or sexual orientation as it appears to add scientific credibility to prevailing prejudice
      - 3) institutional context- may be funded and managed by private institutions who misuse data or misunderstand it- media may obtain reports of such research and misreport
      - 2) conduct of research+treatment of participants: main concern confidentiality of the info collected(if admitted crime remain private?)
      - 4)interpretation+application of findings- may be used for purposes other than originally intended e.g IQ tests used to demonstrate inferiority of others and sterilise the 'feeble minded'
    - - impact of research
        
        Doesn't seem sufficient to safeguard the interest of the individual participants
        
        Should also take into account the impact of research on larger group of which participant is a member
        
        potential for indirect impact on participant's family
      - Disadvantage marginalised groups
        
        groups misinterpreted, misrepresented, failed to include, e.g disabled, minority, elderly
        
        Failure to represent means these groups miss out on benefits of research
        
        Limits understanding of human behaviour
- - - - Comparison with alternatives
        
        Attractive alternative might provide superior outcomes to those in current relationship- lead them to alternative and away from current
        
        extent to which individual's most important needs might eb better fulfilled outside current relationship
      - Investment
        
        Measure of all resources attached to relationship, which would diminish in value or lost if relationship were to end
        
        Contributes to stability of relationship
      - Satisfaction
        
        Influenced by extent to which the other person fulfils the individual's most important needs
        
        Positive vs negative emotions experienced within relationship
      - AO3
        
        Abusive relationship explanation
        
        But they stay- highlight it could be due to lack of alternatives or have too much invested with partner
        
        Shows real world application
        
        Victims of abuse experience low satisfaction which would lead to us predicting they would leave abusive partner
        
        Support across different cultures
        
        US, Netherlands and Taiwan- in variety of relationships (marital, non marital, straight, gay, friend)
        
        Also supported in social media- study confirmed relationship between 3 investment model predictors and commitment level
        
        Can be applied to variety of cultures and populations
      - KEY STUDY Le+Agnew
        
        Correlation between satisfaction level and commitment significantly stronger that quality of alternative or investment size with commitment
        
        Satisfaction level, quality of alternatives and investment size highly correlated with relationship commitment
        
        Meta analysis of 52 studies- explored different components of investment model- 11,000 participants, 54% male 46% female from 5 countries
      - Commitment level
        
        High in partners who are happy with relationship and anticipate little gain, high levels of loss if to leave
        
        Low when satisfaction levels and investment low and quality of alternatives high
        
        Lieklihood involvement will persist
    - - Dyadic
        
        Partner decided need to be addressed, confront other partner
        
        Characterised by arguments- still could be repaired
      - Social
        
        dissatisfaction openly known+shared with friends+family
        
        Sharing with social network may speed up breakdown as people take sides- offer support after relationship ends
      - Intra-psychic
        
        Person reflects on shortcomings of current relatinship
        
        Show little outward dissatisfaction- indirect communication about their feelings
      - Grave dressing
        
        relationship now ended, justify their decision
        
        present themselves as maintaining trust+loyalty- represent relationship ending in favourable terms
      - AO3
        
        varies on age
        
        told plenty more fish in the sea whereas older people may have lower expectations of being to find a replacement
        
        Social phase not same for all relationships
        
        for teens and young adults relationships are more unstable and seen as testing grounds for future long term commitments
        
        Real world application
        
        Paying attention to what people say and about their relationship to show what they think about it
        
        repair might involve re-evaluating the partner's behaviour in a more positive light
        
        Repair in social stage- people outside may help patch their differences
    - - child rearing age- wives reported feeling under benefited and husbands over. Honeymoon period perceive equity
      - greater the inequity, greater dissatisfaction+stress- equity+inequity occur at different times during marriage
      - under benefited may experience anger, sadness+resentment
      - Over benefited- may experience pity, guilt and shame
      - couples in equitable relationship less likely to risk extramarital affairs than peers and longer lasting
      - KEY STUDY Stafford and Canary- interested in how equity+ satisfaction predicted use of maintenance strategies used in marriage- 200 married couples- asked q's about maintenance strategies- assurance, sharing tasks and positivity
      - equitable relationship when partner's benefits minus costs equal their partners benefits less than their costs
      - revealed satisfaction highest for spouses perceived relationships to be equitable, then over, then under benefited
      - AO3- research suggest men and women not equally affected by inequity in romantic relationships- women perceive themselves more under benefited compared to men
      - central assumption most comfortable when they perceive they are getting what they deserve from any given relationship
      - AO3-cultural differences- carried out in US could be equity not as important in non-western cultures- research says important for all
    - - Comparison level of alternatives- weighs up potential increase in rewards from different partners, minus costs of ending current relationship
      - KEY STUDY Kurdeck and Schmitt- investigated importance of social exchange factors in 185 couples- questionnaire
      - Comparison levels judging whether person offers something better or worse- standard in which all relationships judged-(product of experiences in other relationships and general views of what to expect) relationships seen as worthwhile if exceed comparison level
      - for all couples (hetero married, hetero cohabit, mlm,wlw) greater relationship satisfaction associated with perception of benefits of current relationship, seeing alternatives as less attractive
      - Reward minus costs= outcome for their relationship (overall profit or loss) commitment depends on profitability of this outcome
      - AO3- evidence for comparison level of alternatives- longitudinal study of 101 dating couples at US university- when comparison of alternatives high, commitment and satisfaction low
      - Rewards that we may receive from relationship include companionship, being cared for and sex. Costs may include effort, financial investment and time wasted
      - AO3- reductionist- one factor- different couples stay together for different or split for different reasons- ignore individual differences
      - Assumption all social behaviour is series of exchanges- individuals attempt to maximise rewards+minimise costs
  - - - relative anonymity of internet means people can share inner thoughts and feelings with less fear of disapproval from other
      - More selective over content when with wider audience, less private and less intimate
      - More likely to disclose info to people we don't know or might not see again (strangers on train phenomenon)
      - Feel more secure disclosing intimate+sensitive info as they have increased control over what they disclose to selected individual
      - Stranger also doesn't have access to individual's social circle, so more confidentiality
      - those using social networks, such as Facebook, exercise different levels of self disclosure depending on whether they're presenting info publicly or privately
    - - In online relationships absence of these gates that normally limit opportunities for less attractive, shy or less socially skilled
      - consequences is that potential relationships are less likely to be stopped early on
      - Gates in face to face are attractivenes, age or ethnicity to categorise potential partners
      - person's true self more likely to be active in internet relationships than face to face interactions
      - Zhao found Facebook can empower gated individuals to present identities they hope to establish but unable to in face to face
    - - Helpful for shy people
        
        Those who scored high for shyness, greater use of Facebook was associated with higher perceptions of friendship quality
        
        shows shy individuals find value in virtual relationships
        
        Survey of 207 students about shyness, Facebook usage and quality of their friendships
      - Biological basis for self disclosure
        
        research shows biological basis for motviation to self disclose on social media- increased MRI activity associated with reward
        
        Strongly activated when people talking about themselves and less when talking about someone else
        
        Suggest human tendency to share our personal experiences with others may arise from rewarding nature of self disclosure
- - - - Geographical profiling
        
        Commuter- offenders who travel to another geographical area
        
        Criminal geographic targeting- compuerised system by ROssmo- produced 3D ap displaying spatial data related to time, distance and movemnt to and form crime scenes
        
        Marauder- whose home base within geographical area in which crimes are committed
        
        Map called jeopardy surface- different colours indicate closeness to residence
        
        Circle Theory- Canter+Larkin- said criminal's base may be identifiable by looking at spatial distribution of crime scenes
        
        Location of crime clue in investigation. analyses location of crimes, the spatial relationships between crime scenes and how they may relate to offender's home
      - Investigative psychology
        
        Instrumental opportunistic- using murder to obtain something or accomplish goal- took easiest opportunity
        
        3) smallest space analysis- data about crime scenes+offenders characteristics correlated so common connections identified
        
        Instrumental cognitive- concern about being detected and therefore more planned
        
        2) forensic awareness- certain behaviours may reveal awareness of police technique and past experience- e.g rapists conceal fingerprints that had previous conviction of burglary
        
        Expressive impulsive- uncontrolled, heat of strong emotions, may feel provoked by victim
        
        1) interpersonal coherence- people consistent in behaviour and links with elements of crime+everyday life
        
        AO3- used with caution as can narrow down possibilities- Rachel Nickell murder- actual murderer had been ruled out as he was taller than said in profile
        
        Developed by David Canter- said should be based on psychological theory+research- 3 main features
        
        AO3- led to successful conviction of Railway Killer- surveyed 48 police forces and found 75% of police officers questioned said profiling had been useful
    - - Organised- crime planned and victim specifically targeted- body transported from scene, weapon hidden, violent fantasies acted out. offenders high in intelligence, socially/sexually competent- usually normal/blend in
      - Disorganised - unplanned, random selection of victim, engage very little with victim, sexual acts after death. crime scene contain many clues- blood,semen,fingerprints, weapon
      - 4) criminal profile- profile constructed of offender-hypotheses background, habits+beliefs. Used to help catch offender
      - 6) apprehension- if suspect apprehended, profile process reviewed and check each conclusion legitimate
      - AO3- police found useful 82% of 184 said useful and 90% use again- but may not result in actual identification of offender
      - 5) crime assessment- written report given to investigating agenct and persons matching profile evaluated- if new evidence generate or no suspect identified, back to step 2
      - AO3 method based on flawed data- came from interviews with
        offenders like Ted Bundy+Charles Manson- but their approach may be different to 'typical killers'
      - 3) crime assessment- crime classified as organised or disorganised
      - 2) decision process model- organised into patterns- murder type, time factors, location factors
      - 1) profiling input- data collected from description of crime scene, background info of victim and details of crime
  - - - Hostile attribution bias
        
        negative interpretation of events e.g if someone smiles you perceive them as mocking
      - Cognitive distortions
        
        Irrational/inaccurate thinking which can allow an offender to rationalise their behaviour- examples hostile attribution bias and minimalisation
      - Level of moral reasoning Kholberg
        
        Conventional
        
        Most adults believe that conformity to social rules is desirable as maintains social order+positive relationships. Offender accepts breaking law to protect a family member
        
        Post-conventional
        
        10% of adults reach this stage, defining morality by abstract moral principles rather than compliance to norms
        
        Pre-conventional
        
        Children under 10 accept rules of authority and judge actions by consequences. Criminals likely to be this level as believe breaking law is justified if reward outweighs risk of punishment
      - Minimalisation
        
        underplaying consequences of an action to reduce negative emotions e.g guilt, stealing from wealthy family as doesn't affect them
      - AO3
        
        Real world application
        
        Kholberg's observation on Israeli Kibbutzes- children more morally advanced
        
        Set up cluster schools in schools and in 1 prison
        
        Members had power to define+resolve disputes within group encouraging moral development
        
        testing Kholberg
        
        Research to assess Kholberg's stages in Taiwan 330 offenders 12-18
        
        Found offenders who showed more advanced reasoning were less likely to be involved in violent crimes
        
        Gender biased as all male so can't be generalised to females, whose moral principle may be different
    - - If favourable attitudes outweigh unfavourable ones then a person becomes an offender
      - Learning experiences vary in frequency and intensity
      - Learning directional-for/against crime
      - Criminal behaviour learned through operant conditioning and observation
      - Learned from family, peers who may show criminal behaviour/acceptance of deviant attitudes
      - AO3 family studies= 40% of sons of fathers with criminal convictions had committed crime by 18 compared to 13% of noncriminals- could be biological tho not social learning
      - Criminal behaviour learned through association- learns attitudes towards crime+methods of committing crime from intimate personal groups
      - AO3 reductionist- reduces just to social learning, ignores biological factors and may be innate genetic factors. Diathesis stress may be more holistic as combines biology+social factors
    - - Psychotic- individuals are aggressive(high levels of testosterone) and lack empathy- linked to criminal activity
      - Criminality develops form interactions between innate traits and environmental factors(conditioning)
      - Neurotics- high reactivity in SNS- unstable and therefore prone to over-react to situations of threat
      - People high in extroversion and neuroticism are less easily conditioned don't learn to avoid anti-social behaviour
      - Extravert seek more arousal due to innate low cortical arousal levels and therefore engage in dangerous activities
      - Research support- criminal score higher on personality traits for extroversion+psychoticism than non-criminals- however ppts were students+friends and only minor offences-can't be generalised
      - Character traits 3 - extraversion to introversion, neuroticism to stability, psychoticism to normality
      - Personality test lack validity as depend on self-reported data- socially desirable answers so may not be truthful- e.g EPQ forced choice times- may not represent reality
    - - Bowlby
        
        AO3- care of young children- Robertson demonstrated children cope with separations as long as substitute emotional care available- social polices and childcare influenced by Bowlby
        
        AO3- 44 thieves- conducted interviews, diagnosed boys with affectionless psychopathy and knew who were thieves and who weren't- biased
        
        44 thieves study- 12/14 affectionless psychopaths
        
        Long term consequence affectionless psychopathy- lack of empathy, shame or sense of responsibility
        
        Maternal deprivation- prolonged separations between mother and child have long term emotional consequences- especially before 2.5 years without substitute mother figure
      - Freud
        
        Freud superego- if it doesn't function as it should the id is not controlled well and can lead to offending behaviour
        
        Child whose parent is absent- underdeveloped superego, little control over ID impulses
        
        very strong identification with strict parent- overdeveloped superego- commits crime with wish to be caught+punished to reduce guilt
        
        Identification with criminal parent- deviant superego- adopts same attitudes as criminal parent
        
        AO3- gender biased as proposed women had weaker superego than men- little reason for anyone to identify with a woman due to lower status- if correct more women would be criminals- alpha bias leads to incorrect predictions