Paper 2
Approaches
Approaches pt2
Biopsychology
Biopsychology pt2
Learning approaches
Psychodynamic approach
Humanistic psychology
Behaviourist approach
Social Learning theory
Divisions of nervous system
Structure+function of sensory, relay+motor neurons
Localisation of function+hemispheric lateralisation
Ways of studying the brain
Operant conditioning
Pavlov's research
Types of reinforcement
Classical conditioning
Skinner's research
Modelling
Vicarious reinforcement
Role of mediational processes
Identification
Imitation
Bandura's research
Defence mechanisms
Structure of the personality
Psychosexual stages
Role of the unconscious
Self actualisation
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Focus on the self
Congruence
Free will
Role of conditions of worth
Influence on counselling Psychology
Peripheral
Central
Sensory
Relay
Motor
Process of synaptic transmission
Wernicke's area
Broca's area
Split brain research
Auditory centres
Plasticity
Visual centres
Functional recovery of the brain after trauma
somatosensory
Motor
EEGs
ERPs
fMRI
Postmortem examination
Process discovered by Pavlov in his research with dogs
Demonstrates learning of innate reflex behaviours in animals
Continually paired together- the NS becomes the conditioned stimulus and the response conditioned reponse
This led to an unconditioned response of salivation
He presented a bell (Neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus)
AO3
ignores other psychological explanations
Application in treating phobias
replace learned response with another response
effective treatment for range of phobias
led to development of systematic desensitisation
argued more complicated that stimulus-reinforcement relationship
ignores cognitive+emotional factors suggesting humans products of conditioning alone
May not provide complete explanation for complex human behaviour
Suggests consequences of a behaviour may be positive or negative, and whether it's repeated depends on nature of these consequences
Skinner's theory
Positive reinforcement- behaviour produces consequence rewarding for organism- e.g praise after doing something well
Negative reinforcement- behaviour removes an unpleasant consequence- e.g hitting off button on alarm clock removes ringing sound
If knocked lever food would appear
Electric current and if knocked lever current would be switched off
Skinner's box- animal rewarded or punished for certain behaviours- lever pressing for rats and key pecking for pigeons
AO3
Experimental method
Rely on animal research
manipulated consequences of behaviour (IV) to measure the effect on the rat's behaviour (DV)
established relationships between positive+negative reinforcement and likelihood of future behaviour
Skinner used controlled conditions to discover causal relationship
Skinner relied on rats and pigeons
unable to draw conclusions relating to human behaviour as far more complex biologically and behaviourally
Humanists argue humans have free will and not shaped by conditioning
Process of copying an observed behaviour and is more likely to occur when identification takes place
Children more likely to identify with and learn from models who are similar to them (gender?)
AO3
Provides an example of behaviour that can be observed and later copied- model an attitude or behaviour for SLT to take place
Research by Bandura- children who observe a model receiving rewards are more likely to imitate behaviour- known as vicarious reinforcement
Applies to criminal behaviour
Issue of complexity
if identify with criminal model- develop expectation of positive consequence for their own criminal behaviour- copy
allows psychologist to identify+understand factors that lead to criminal behaviour
more likely to commit crime if exposed to models who commit crime
explains development of gender-specific behaviour as result of gender-specific role models
children exposed to different influences, interact in complex way- include genetic predispositions and media portrayals
difficult to separate influence of SLT from other factors
Children who observed aggressive imitated a good deal of aggressive behaviour, similar to that of the model
None of the children who observed the non-aggressive model made verbally aggressive remarks
Children observed aggressive and non aggressive adult model and then tested for imitative learning
Children who saw the model being rewarded for their aggressive acts were more likely to demonstrate aggression in their own play
Bobo doll experiment to examine SLT in children
4 processes- Attention (whether we notice the behaviour), retention(whether we remember the behaviour), reproduction (whether we are able to perform the behaviour) and motivation (whether the perceived rewards outweigh the perceivedcosts)
AO3
Unconscious mind reveals itself through slips of tongue, creativity and neurotic symptoms
Psycho dynamic theories emphasise- change in development in individual, unconscious motives+desires, importance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality
ID- pleasure principle
Ego- morality principle
Superego- reality principle
Denial- refusal to accept reality to avoid dealing with painful feelings that might be associated with that event
Displacement- redirecting of thoughts/feelings in situation where person feels unable to express the in presence of they person they should be directed towards
Repression- unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts+ impulses- influence behaviour without person being aware of it
PHALLIC 3-6- sexual energy focused on genitals- Oedipus complex in male, unconsciously wishes to possess mother and get rid of father. Experience castration anxiety of father and to resolve this identify with father
LATENT 6-12- mastery of world- conflicts+issues of previous stages repressed- unable to remember much of early years
GENITAL 12+- culmination of psycho sexual development ad fixing of sexual energy on genitals- eventually directs towards sex and beginning of adult life
ANAL 2-3- beginning of ego development child aware of demands of reality and need to conform- major issue at this stage toilet training as child learn to control expulsion of bodily waste
ORAL 0-2- mouth focal point of sensation in which child expresses early sexual energy (sucking+biting)
Empirical evidence
gender biased
Observations of behaviour rather than introspection
Led to development of psychodynamic approach resulted in psychological treatment instead of using biological therapies
used case studies as way of gathering empirical evidence
Freud ignorant of female sexuality
treated many female patients but centralised on males
criticised work and developed new theory relating to women's development
Androcentric
the ability to have full conscious control over own destiny
Rogers- believed people can creatively solve own problems and become more authentic
Humanistic therapists provide empathy and unconditional postiive regard, facilitating client in finding self actualisation
People who attain it are more authentic and true to self, have peak experiences of extreme inspiration+ecstasy
Rogers claimed out 2 basic needs, positive regard from others and feelings of self worth
if there is a similarity between person's ideal self and self image, a state of congruence exists. Difference represents state of incongruence
pyramid- most basic needs at bottom and most advanced at top. Order: physiological(food,water), safety(employment,security), love/belonging(friendship family), esteem(confidence, respect), self actualisation (morality, lack of prejudice)
AO3
Research support
Cultural differences
research on teenagers who felt they had to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain parents' approval end up not liking themselves
those who create false self pretending to be person their parents love are more likely to develop depression
individuals who experience conditional positive regard more likely to display more false self behaviour
Study in China found belonging more fundamental than psychological needs
self actualisation defined more in terms of contribution to community than individual development
Shows different cultures see different aspects of life resulting in self actualisation- may not apply to all cultures
When people receive conditional positive regard they develop conditions of worth
Tend to be creative, accepting of other people and had an accurate perception of the world around them
Conditions they perceive significant others put upon them, and believe have to be in place if they are accepted by others and see themselves positively
Cerebrum made up of right+left hemispheres, joined by corpus callosum. Each hemisphere has 4 lobes with specialist functions:
Brain has 4 main areas: Cerebrum (thought+production of speech+processing visual images), cerebellum (balance+ coordination), diencephalon (regulation of body temp, hunger and thirst) and brain stem (regulates autonomic functions breathing, heart rate, swallowing)
Frontal: speech, thoughts and learning. Occipital: process visual info. Prefrontal: process info on touch,temp and pain. Temporal: hearing+memory.
Receives info from sensory receptors via sensory neurons- sends messages to muscles+glands via motor neurons
Diencephalon made up of thalamus:relay station for nerve impulses coming from senses. and Hypothalamus:link between endocrine system and nervous system-controls release of hormones
Comprised of brain+spinal cord- controls behaviour+regulates bodies physiological processes
Autonomic 2 branches- sympathetic and parasympathetic
Sympathetic- deals with emergencies(fight or flight), nor adrenaline is neurotransmitter-has stimulating effects
Sympathetic has stimulating effect and parasympathetic has inhibiting effects
Parasympathetic- rest and digest after emergency situation- reduces blood pressure and heart rate. Acetylcholine main neurotransmitter- which reduces heartbeat and restores digestion
Autonomic Nervous system- controls unconscious actions (heartbeat) regulate same organs but have different effects
Somatic nervous system- 12 pairs of cranial nerves+31 pairs of spinal nerves. Relay messages to CNS
Been used to establish link between psychiatric disorders, schizophrenia+depression, and underlying brain abnormalities
AO3 strength- central to understanding of schizophrenia- deeper structures investigated- changes in neurotransmitters, abnormalities associated with schizophrenia
Patient HM- investigated post mortem confirming his inability to store new memories linked to lesions in the hippocampus
AO3 weakness- people die in variety of circumstances- more confounding variables- only retrospective data- relationships between variables can be tested but context of death may have led to changes in brain
If suspected that patients behavioural changes caused by brain, may look for abnormalities after they died
AO3 strength-monitor stimulus without requiring person to respond- covertly monitor- little effect of demand characteristics
ERPs generated after first 100 milliseconds reflect manner in which subject evaluates the stimulus are termed cognitive
2 categories waves occurring in first 100 milliseconds after presentation of stimulus are termed sensory
AO3 weakness- only sufficiently strong voltage charges record able- those deep in the brain aren't recorded
small voltage changes in brain triggered by specific events- hard to establish from other electrical activity in the brain
Can be used to detect various types of brain disorder or ones that influence brain activity
Strength AO3- records brain activity in real life rather than image- useful for clinical diagnosis
4 types fo pattern:alpha, beta, delta and theta waves
electrodes placed on scalp- detect electrical charges resulting from activity of brain cells- plotted on graph called an EEG
Weakness AO3- not useful for pinpointing exact source of activity- can't distinguish between close locations- detected from overlapping areas- may mislead
Measures electrical activity in brain
AO3 strength- objective and reliable measure of psychological processes than verbal reports do
if particular are more active, increased demand for oxygen and increased blood flow, used to produce maps showing which areas of brain are involved in particular activities
measures changes in brain activity while person performs task- measures changes in blood flow in particular areas of brain that indicate increased neural activity in those areas
AO3 weakness- overlooks network nature of brain activity- findings can be misinterpreted- focuses only on localised activity of brain- more holistic view needed
motor cortex on one side of the brain responsible for controlling muscles on the opposite side of the body
Different parts exert control over different parts of the body- arranged logically next to one another e.g region controls foot next to one that controls leg
repsonsible for generation of voluntary motor movements- located in frontal lobe- both hemispheres have motor cortex
Both hemispheres have somatosensory cortex with cortex on one side of brain receiving sensory info from opposite side of body
processes info related to touch- produces sensations of touch, pressure, pain and temperature- then localises to specific body region
Detects sensory events arising from different regions of body- located in parietal love of brain
primary located in visual cortex in occipital lobe
processing begins in retina where light enters and strikes photoreceptors. nerve impulses from retina travel to areas of brain via optic nerve
visual cortex spans both hemispheres- right receives input from left visual field and vice versa
contains different areas that process different types of info e.g colour, shape or movement
On the way brain stem decodes this e.g duration+intensity of sound, thalamus then carries out further processing
pathways begin in cochlear in inner ear, sounds waves converted to nerve impulses and travel via auditory nerve to auditory cortex
hearing- mostly in temporal lobes on both sides of brain- auditory cortex
All had similar lesions in left frontal hemisphere- patients with damage in right didn't have similar language problems
Led Broca to identify existence of language centre in posterior portion of frontal lobe in left hemisphere- critical for speech production
Studied patient Tan who understood spoken language but unable to speak or express thoughts in writing
posterior portion of left temporal lobe, patients with lesions in Wernicke's area could speak but couldn't understand language
Wernicke proposed language involves separate motor and sensory regions located in different cortical regions
Motor regions in Broca's close to area controlling mouth, tongue and vocal cords whereas Wernicke's close to regions responsible for auditory+visual input
Left hemisphere dominant for language and speech- right for visual-motor task- connected by nerve fibres corpus callosum
split brain research to treat epilepsy surgeons would cut corpus callosum
researched to explore the different abilities of 2 hemispheres- aim to prevent violent electrical activity that accompanies epileptic seizures crossing from 1 hemisphere to the other
Broca suggested each hemisphere responsible for different functions- connection via corpus callosum means still able to talk about things perceived by right hemisphere
Key Study Gazzaniga- studied split brain patients- presented info to patients by corpus cut- info had no way travelling to other hemi
Fixate on dot in centre of screen while info presented to left or right- then asked to make responses using left or right hand- or verbally(left) without being able to see hands
gradual decline in cognitive function with age- study 60 year old can be taught new skill and connection made to reverse this
AO3- taxi driver- grey matter positive correlation between size of posterior hippocampus and how long worked as taxi driver
Had resulted in new synaptic connections in brain areas in spatial navigation, strategic planning, working memory and motor performance
AO3 animal studies- rats number of neurons increased in complex environments compared to rats in lab cages
E.g playing video games results in complex cognitive+motor demands- study trasined on Super Mario- increase in grey matter around cortex, cerebellum+hippocampus
brain continues to create new neural pathways and alter existing ones to adopt to new experiences due to learning
Stem cells implanted into brain to treat brain damage- replace dead/dying cells, secrete growth factors that rescue injured cells
They also form a neural network, linking an uninjured brain site, where new stem cells are made, with damaged region of brain
This creates spread of activation, giving way to development of new structures
AO3- reduces with age- capacity fr neural reorganisation greater in children than adults
Neuronal unmasking- dormant synapses can be unmasked and open connections to regions of brain that aren't normally activated
AO3- educational attainment- those with equivalent of college education 7 times more likely to be disability free 1 year after traumatic brain injury than those who didn't finish high school
Brain cells damaged, e.g after a stroke, other parts can take over their function
AO3
Individual differences
support from broca+wernicke
also gender differences in size of areas associayed with language -women's larger broca+wernicke than men
difference in language areas of brain
variability in individual patterns of activation across individuals during language tasks
Broca researched 9 patients with similar speech deficits-aphasia- showed impaired ability to produce language
Wernicke researched receptive aphasia- impaired ability to extract meaning from words
shows evidence of localised functions of specific brain areas
Left hemisphere doesn't receive info and therefore cannot talk about it, despite having language centre
AO3- rarity that patients have had this procedure, few as 3 participants if not less
AO3-lateralisation not fixed- changes it age- older adults have less lateralisation of function, use both hemispheres when older
Action potential arrives at terminal at end of axon- must cross gap between presynaptic to postsynaptic - cross synaptic gap
At end of axon synaptic vesicles- contain chemical messages that assist the transfer of the impulse, the neurotransmitters- as action potential reaches them it releases its contents through exocytosis
Process by which nerve impulse passes across synaptic cleft from one neuron(presynaptic) to another (postsynaptic)
released neurotransmitter after crossing binds to specialised receptors on surface of cell- activated produce either excitatory or inhibitory effects
Inhibition-serotonin+GABA-'off switches' decrease likelihood of neuron firing- calming mind+body inducing sleep- bind to postsynaptic receptor results in inhibitory postsynaptic potential IPSP
Re-uptake- neurotransmitter taken up again by presynaptic, stored and made avialable for later release
Excitation- noradrenaline+acetylcholine-'on switches'increase likelihood excitatory signal sent to postsynaptic cell, more likely to fire- bind to postsynpatic cell=Excitatory post synaptic potential EPSP
Neurons convert info from these receptors into neural impulses- when they reach the brain they are translated to sensations (pain)
Some terminate in the spinal cord- allows reflex actions to occur quickly without delay of sending impulses to brain
Carry nerve impulses form sensory receptors to spinal cord+brain sensory receptors found in eyes,ears, tongue and skin
Relay neurons allow sensory+motor neurons to communicate with each other
Lie within brain and spinal cord
Most neurons neither sensory or motor, but lie between sensory input and motor input
located in peripheral nervous system- project axons outside PNS and directly/indirectly control muscles
Form synapses with muscles and control contractions- when stimulated release neurotransmitters that bind to receptors on muscle and trigger response, leading to muscle movement
When axon of motor neuron fires, msucle with which it has formed synapses with contracts
Strength of muscle contraction depend on rate of firing the axons of motor neurons that control it. Muscle relaxation is caused by inhibition of the motor neuron