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PSYC4013 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Categories of causes
        
        Pilot-related
        
        Mechanical/Maintenance
        
        Other/unknown
  - - - Switch Design
  - - - Skill-based Errors
      - Decision Errors
      - Perceptual Errors
    - - Latent Failures
        
        Organisational Influences
        
        Preconditions for unsafe act
      - Active Failures
        
        Unsafe Acts
  - - - Difficulty in humans
        
        Computer Based Training
        
        Threat Image Projection
  - - - Memory Lapses
      - Work-arounds
      - Situational Awareness
      - Expertise
      - Action slips
  - - - Cramming too much information into one transmission
  - - - FAA decision that retraining not needed
      - MCAS system not included in pilot training guide
    - - Impacts
        
        47 deaths, 74 serious injuries
      - Causes
        
        Inadequate training
        
        Inadequate communication between aircrew
- - - - mental processes
      - Perception
    - - optimisation of sociotechnical systems
  - - - required for Product Success
      - So much choice that users are in charge of whether a company will survive
      - The Product has to work for people
      - Case Study
        
        Apple Iphone's superior customer satisfaction putting Blackberry out of business
    - - Increase productivity in work environments
      - If people enjoy their work, they will work harder and have less sick days
    - - when interacting with technology, things can go wrong
      - In safety critical environments when things go wrong people can lose their lives
      - Importance on designing systems that reduce the likelihood of human error, and minimise the impact of any potential erros
      - HF investigators will try to understand why human errors occur and how we can minimise them
    - - High Risk = Safety
      - Workplace = focus on performance
      - Consumer Products = satisfaction
  - - - People, Work and Organisational
    - - Training
      - Verification of operator competence
      - Operating procedures
      - Poor Safety Culture
      - Lack of effective reporting and learning culture
      - Organisational structure
      - Communication
      - Ineffective superiors
      - Alarms
      - Interfaces
      - Staffing Levels
      - Fatigue Management
- - - - users will have different requirements to the designer
      - users, tasks, environment
    - - Front-End analysis
        
        Completed before any prototypes are developed
        
        Understanding the users and their needs
      - Creating the first draft product/system design
        
        using Low fidelity prototypes
      - Evaluation
        
        Evaluate how well the design meets the users requirements
  - - - Gather information on goals and tasks
    - - Analyse the tasks performed to achieve goals
    - - Observation, interview, focus groups
  - - - Fictitious representations of your target users
      - Personas want to be able to do things using your system
      - Multiple personas need to be developed as the product is unlikely to be aimed at only one user group
    - - systems, products and services are used for different reasons
      - Different goals and motivations
      - Novice and expert users of a technology
      - Capturing motivations for using a product
    - - people undertaking activities in contexts using technologies
  - - - changes in technology alter communication and power structures and may have effects on jobs
    - - social pressures
    - - environmental factors that may impact the correct use of your product
  - - - how easy is it to learn how to use the system
    - - understanding patterns of errors
    - - do the users enjoy using the design
- - - - Loss of Situational Awareness
      - Perception and Cognition failures
      - Teamwork
      - Culture
  - - - comfort discussing safety
    - - fair treatment, empathy and consideration
    - - Confidence in the reporting system
    - - organisation is committed to develop
    - - organisation learns from previous experience
  - - - WHO Surgical Safety Checklist
      - Situation, Background, Assessment, Recommendation (SBAR)
  - - - measures non-technical skills for anaesthetists
  - - - Communication
      - Training
      - Fatigue
      - Environment
- - - - Mixture of toxic gases released
      - at least 1,700 immediate deaths
      - Context
        
        operating at 1/4 production capacity due to collapse of pesticide price and demand
        
        most relevant safety systems were not operating at the time of the incident
    - - installation of dedicated cheat devices when cars undergo emissions tests
      - Not an isolated offender
  - - - business environments priming immoral behaviour
      - Euphemisms help managers to not think about moral aspects of their actions
    - - Prospect Theory
      - Behaving responsibly costs money, looking like you behave responsibly is cheaper
  - - - negative spill-over more common than positive spill-over in environmental behaviour
      - Moral licensing effects as human moral cognition is designed for direct interactions with people
  - - - easier for everyone to agree even when harmful
      - Social Situation
        
        Obedience bias, conforming bias, self-identification with company culture
        
        Power imbalances
  - - - corporations count legally as individual people in legal jurisdiction
      - Personality types of corporations can differ
      - Numerous examples of corporations behaving as if they have no empathy
- - - - Errors of Commission
        
        An Operator does something but the action is problematic
        
        Slips
      - Errors of Omission
        
        When the operator fails to do something they should have done
        
        Lapses
    - - Mistakes
        
        Knowledge Based Mistakes
        
        Rule-Based Mistakes
      - Violations
        
        Deliberate deviation from a rule or procedure
        
        Intentional, Necessary, Routine, Optimising
  - - - Don't Require people to remember everything they need to know to operate the system
      - Different people will require different types of guidance
      - Knowledge must be available in an appropriate form
    - - Physical or Logical Constraints
      - Inter-locks: force sequences of events
      - Lock-ins: stop you from carrying out a certain action
      - Lock-outs: stop you from doing certain things
  - - - Perception: signal missing or ignored
      - Short Term Memory: distraction, fatigue, interference
      - Long Term Memory: retrieval incomplete
      - Execution: motor co-ordination poor
      - Attention Resources: loss of situation awareness
    - - managerial influences and social pressures that make up the culture
    - - people whose tasks are removed in time and space from operational activities
    - - Layers of cheese represent barriers
      - Holes in cheese represent weaknesses
      - A single latent error does not immediately result in accident, but when combined and holes align: accidents happen
    - - Job
        
        Clarity of signs, inadequate procedures, time available
      - Person
        
        stress, morale, workload
      - Organisational
        
        work pressures, manning levels, peer pressure
  - - - Stressors
        
        Environmental
        
        Psychological
        
        Cognitive appraisal of the situation
        
        differences in skill change perception of the danger of a situation
      - Effects
        
        Psychological
        
        Physiological
        
        Information Processing
        
        Long-term consequences on health
      - Arousal
        
        Yerkes-Dodson Law
        
        the relationship between arousal and performance
        
        Too high arousal = tunnelling
        
        tendency to restrict breadth of attention
    - - humans have limited processing capacity
      - Resources and task performance requires processing capacity
      - Mental workload assessment
      - Measures of Workload
        
        Primary Task Measures
        
        Secondary Task measures
        
        Subjective rating measures
        
        Physiological measures
        
        NASA-TLX
    - - Perception of the elements of the environment
      - Comprehension of the current situation
      - Projection of Future status
      - lack of situation awareness often leads to human error in safety critical environments
        
        the problem is finding appropriate information at the correct time
- - - - International commission on illumination (CIE) - international authority on colourimetry and visual performance
      - Munsell system describes psychological colour space
      - colour vision is only found in the foveal region
      - design principles
        
        take into account common confusions of colour blindness
        
        interactive colour schemes
        
        visual angle at least 2x critical print size
      - metamerism
        
        colour that are perceptually identical under one lighting can look distinctly different under another
      - Cognitive Appraisal of colour
        
        intrinsic and learned associations which influence mood and performance
        
        acuity declines markedly from foveation to peripheral vision
      - Viewing Distance
        
        subtended visual angle - effect of viewing distance on perceived size of objects
        
        Perfect VDU reproduction = pixel granularity that exceed visual angle of viewing
        
        reading legibility depends on size of the x-height (needs to be between 0.2 to 3 degrees visual angle
      - Visual Crowding
        
        Items in periphery are perceptually obscured when cluttered
        
        Difference in colour, size, formation reduces visual crowding
      - Contrast Sensitivity
        
        background context of an image - lower contrasts are harder to discern
        
        Luminance contrast is what is important for acuity
        
        Dependence on spatial frequency
        
        spatial distance of the light and dark regions from one another
    - - Sound Intensity
        
        sound level is determined by the amplitude of the waveform
      - Sound Timbre
        
        lowest frequency of underlying pure-tone sine waves determines the pitch
      - Auditory Masking
        
        Loss of perceptibility of a sound when another is present
        
        If tones are sufficiently different in pitch this will not occur
        
        Dependent on the frequency of the signal
      - Design Principles
        
        masking utilised in auditory compression techniques
        
        Active Noise Reduction - unwanted sounds reduced by presenting anti-noise
        
        Noise and Annoyance
        
        higher frequencies more annoying than low
        
        Accurate speech communication
        
        Accurate Speech Understanding
        
        Sonification of visual information
        
        Use of sound for the purposes of better 'visualisation' of information
        
        Auditory Navigational aids for low vision
      - Auditory Fatigue
        
        Continuous exposure to intense sound
        
        Temporary Threshold Shift
        
        Permanent Threshold Shift = permanent hearing damage
  - - - Attention reflects fundamental limits of the brain
      - Sustained Attention
        
        Ability to maintain focus on a task
        
        Vigilance Decrement
        
        Cognitive Resource Theory
        
        Mindlessness theory
      - Selective Attention
        
        focus on stimuli relevant to current task goals & ignore irrelevant thigns
        
        Overt Selective Attention
        
        overtly shifting position of sense organs
        
        endogenous (volitional) vs exogenous (automatic) control of attention
        
        Orienting reflex - sudden abrupt events drawing attention
        
        Salience - properties guiding attention and eye movement
        
        Covert Selective Attention
        
        internal process of selection
        
        Looking out of the corner of your eye
      - Failures of Awareness
        
        Inattentional blindness
        
        objects cast onto the retina not reaching awareness
        
        dependence on attentional sets - biased attention towards particular type of feature with value, deprioritising others
        
        Change Blindness
        
        failure to perceive changes even when they occur before our eyes
    - - Homo economicus
        
        Human agents are:
        
        Perfectly rational
        
        Capable of assessing all available information
        
        Knows what outcomes are best for their long term wellbeing
      - Concept of expected value
        
        the amount that we expect to receive on average from something according to rules of probability
        
        Utility
        
        Utility of value diminishes the bigger the absolute values are involved
        
        Subjected Expected Utility Theory - how people should behave when making decisions
        
        expected utility of each action is the sum expected utilities for each possible outcome
        
        Ambiguity aversion
        
        preference for certainty over uncertainty in decisions
        
        Framing effects - how a question is worded strongly determines the likelihood that something is chosen
      - Prospect Theory
        
        Separate curves for lesses and gains, curves for losses are steeper
        
        Losses are felt more keenly than equivalent gains
        
        Humans tend to be risk averse
      - Naturalistic Decision Making
        
        professionals have different decision making models than novices do as make use of classical models
        
        Experience is the main driver of shifts in decisions made
        
        Rule of Thumb/heuristic decision making model
        
        Heuristics
        
        Availability
        
        judging the likelihood of an event in terms of the ease with which it comes to mind
        
        Representativeness
        
        ignoring base rate information when making judgements or estimates about probability
        
        Anchoring
        
        form of priming, initial exposure information is used to influence subsequent judgements
      - Reasoning
        
        Syllogistic reasoning
        
        simplest form of logical reasoning from a premise
        
        Categorical Reasoning
        
        3 part logical argument which decides if it is valid or not
        
        Particular syllogism
        
        ambiguous decision on the validity of a conclusion
        
        Universal Syllogism
        
        definite decision on the validity of a conclusion
        
        Conditonal Syllogism
        
        3 part logical argument using if...then... conditions
        
        Bias
        
        confirmation bias
        
        Matching bias
- - - - Begin with a goal
      - Form Intention to achieve goal
      - Translate into a sequence of actions
      - Execute Actions
      - Perceive new state of the world at each step
      - Interpret what we see
      - Compare against our goal
    - - How an individual translates intentions into action
    - - how an individual evaluates the effects of actions and knows when the goals are satisfied
  - - - Creating Interactive experiences
      - Human Centred
      - Systems that support people and create enjoyment
      - Thinking about what people want to do
      - 21st Cent Challenges
        
        increasingly diverse population
        
        Increasing functionality
        
        More Diverse environments
      - Designing the User Interface
        
        Hardware: physical, tangible
        
        Input Devices: switches and Buttons
        
        Input methods: keyboards and touchscreens
        
        Output devices: vision, speech and haptics
        
        Software
        
        Functionality
        
        Interface
    - - Differences
        
        Social DIfferences
        
        Types of use
        
        Mandatory: using a system that is required as part of a job
        
        Discretionary: system is used because an individual wants to
      - User Types
        
        Novice Users
        
        Intermittent Users
        
        Each posses different quality mental models
        
        Expert Users
    - - Organisational
        
        Communication
        
        Power Structures
      - Social
        
        Supportive Environment
        
        Social Norms
      - Physical
        
        physical environment
        
        noise, weather, conditions, temperature, climate
        
        Internet Access
    - - Memory
      - Visuo-spatial skills
      - Skill with words vs numbers
      - Personality, emotional make-up
      - Working under stress
      - Mental Models
        
        what the user believes about the system at hand
        
        prevent us from having to figure out things from scratch every time we have a new experience
        
        Tools to make inferences and come to conclusions quickly
        
        understanding user's mental models
        
        design systems that allow people to form correct mental models of how the system works
        
        Mental models are incomplete, lacking in a mental model means people perform actions by rote
    - - Visibility, Feedback, Consistency
      - Metaphors, affordances
        
        Affordances
        
        Perceived and actual properties of an object that determines how it could be used