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CHAPTER 3: SYSTEM ANALYSIS - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Slide 10(Anding)
        
        The processing that will take place and the hardware necessary to support that processing. It is act of taking inputted data and converting it to something usable. The system will mainly include a database to store file records.
      - Slide 11(Wan)
        
        Example : (3)
        
        The student records system must allow record access....
        
        The warehouse distribution system must analyze daily orders...
        
        The human resource system must interface properly with.....
    - - Slide 15 (Mauldorna)
        Example
        
        The system shall be available 24/7 for 365 days in any one calendar year
        
        The telecommunications bandwidth shall be not less than 4.5 KHz
        
        All transactions must have audit trails
    - - Output
        
        Output is the information produced by a system or
        process from a specific input.
        
        Within the context of systems theory, the outputs are the results obtained after running an entire process or just a small part of a process.
        
        (Dominic) Sambungan Output - Slide 9
        
        Example of Output:
        
        The Web site must report online volume statistics
        
        The contact management system must generate a daily reminder list
        
        The sales tracking system must provide a daily fast-moving-item report
        
        The customer analysis system must produce a quarterly report
    - - Requirements Modeling
        
        Involves fact-finding to describe the current
        system and identification of the requirements
        for the new system.
        
        slide 5 (ARIF)
        
        Input is something put into a system or expended in
        its operation to achieve output or a result.
        
        Within the context of systems theory, the inputs are what
        are put into a system.
    - - Performance
        
        Computer systems are controlled by a combination of general controls & application controls
        
        General control : govern the design, security & use of computer programs & the security of data files
        
        Application control - specific controls that unique to each computerized application
    - - INPUT
        
        Example of Input:
        :check: Manufacturing employees must swipe their ID cards.
        :check: The department head must enter overtime hours.
        :check: Students grades must be entered on machine-scannable forms.
        :check: Each input form must include date, time,
        :check: Data entry screens must be uniform.
        :check: data entry person at the medical group must input.
        
        • Manufacturing employees must swipe their ID cards.....
    - - INPUT
        
        something put into a system or expended in its operation to achieve output or a result .
        
        Within the context of systems theory, the inputs are what
        are put into a system.
    - - Performance
        Example :
        
        The system must support 40 users at the same time
        
        Response time must not exceed 9 second for each user.
    - - Performance
        
        Speed of the system
        
        The speed, capacity, and realibility of the system.
  - - - Step 2: Designing interview questions
        
        Closed-ended questions
        
        Slide 28(Anding)
        Closed-ended questions enable analysts to control the interview and obtain the information they need.
        However, these types of questions don’t uncover why the answer is the way it is, nor do they uncover information that the interviewer does not think to ask ahead of time.
        
        Slide 34(Mauldorna)
        Example
        
        How many telephones orders are received per day?
        
        How do customers place orders?
        
        What information is missing from the monthly sales report?
        
        Dominic (Slide 27)
        
        Closes- ended question are used when the analyst is looking for specific, precise
        information.
        
        In general, precise questions are best.
        
        For example, rather than asking “Do you handle a lot of requests?
        
        Slide 29(Wan)
        Example Closed-Ended Question :
        
        How many times a week is the project repository updated ?
        
        On average, how many calls does the call center receive monthly ?
        
        List your top two priorities for improving the technology infrastructure.
        
        Who receives this input ?
        
        Open-ended questions
        
        Slide 34 (Mauldorna)
        Example
        
        What do you think about the way invoices are currently processed?
        
        What are some of the problems you face on a daily basis?
        
        What are some of the improvements you would like to see in the way invoices are processed?
        
        Probing Questions
        
        Slide 34 (Mauldorna)
        Example
        
        Why?
        
        Can you give me an example?
        
        Can you explain that in a bit more detail?
        
        slide 33(WARDINA)
        
        can be quite challenging for beginner analysts since they believe interviewee might be offended
        
        but when done politely, probing questions can be powerful tool in requirements discovery
        
        Slide 32(Shahrul)
        
        Probing questions ask for more detail on a particular matter. They're often follow-up questions like, 'Could you tell me more about that?' or 'Please explain what you mean.
        
        Slide 25(Catherine)
        
        There are three types of interview questions:
        
        Closed-ended questions
        
        Open-ended questions
        
        Probing questions
        
        Slide 36(Syazwan) Top-down interview
        
        Top down interview
        
        The interviewer starts with broad, general issues and gradually works
        towards more specific ones
        
        It is certainly the most common approach.
        
        It enables the interviewee to become accustomed to the topic before he
        or she needs to provide specifics.
        
        1 more item...
      - Step 4: Conducting the Interview
        
        Slide 44(Anding)
        
        It is important that you understand the issues that are discussed.
        
        If you don’t understand something during the interview, you certainly won’t understand it afterward.
        
        Slide 42 (Catherine)
        
        Carefully record all the information that the interviewee
        provides.
        
        The best approach is to take careful notes—write down everything the interviewee says.
        
        Don’t be afraid to ask the person to slow down or to pause
        while you write
        
        One potentially controversial issue is whether or not to tape-record the interview.
        
        Slide 43 (Dominic)
        
        Recording ensures that you do not miss important points, but it can be intimidating for the interviewee.
        
        Most organizations have policies or generally accepted
        practices about the recording of interviews, so find out what they are before you start an interview.
        
        If you are worried about missing information and cannot
        tape the interview, then bring along a second person to take
        detailed notes
        
        Slide 41 (Gib)
        -important that you understand the issues that are discussed -Be sure to ask if do not understand something - if you not understand something during the interview,you will not understand it afterward
        
        Slide 45(Wan)
        
        Be sure to separate facts from opinion. The interviewee may say for example, "We process too many credit card request".
        
        This is an opinion, and it is useful to follow this up with a probiing question requesting support for the statement (e.g., "Oh,how many do you process in a day?")
        
        It is helpful to check the facts because any differences between the facts and interviewee opinions can point out key areas for improvement.
      - Step 1: Selecting Interviewees
        
        Slide 20 (Jazrin)
        Its important to:
        
        Create an interview schedule
        
        Listing who will be interviewed
        
        The purpose of the interview
        
        Where and when it will take place for the interview
        
        Slide 19 (Haziq)
        5 basic steps:
        
        Selecting Interviewees
        
        Designing Interview Questions
        
        Preparing the Interview
        
        Conducting the Interview
        
        Postinterview Follow-Up
        
        slide 23(erik)
        ❑ People at different levels of the organization will have different viewpoints on the system, so it is important to include both managers who manage the processes and staff who actually perform the processes to gain both high-level and low-level perspectives on an issue.
        ❑ the kinds of interview subjects that you need may change over time.
        ❑ For example, at the start of the project the analyst has a limited understanding of the as-is business process.
        
        Slide 17 (Abdullah)
        
        An interview schedule should be created, listing who will be interviewed, the purpose of the interview, and where and when it will take place.
        
        The schedule can be an informal list that is used to help set up meeting times or a formal list that is incorporated into thework plan.
        
        The people who appear on the interview schedule are selected on the basis of the analyst’s information needs.
        
        Slide 18(Syazwan) Interviews .The most commonly used requirements elicitation technique .Conducted one on one (one interviewer and one interviewee)
        
        slide 21 (arif)
        
        It is common to begin by interviewing one or two senior managers to
        get a strategic view and then move to mid-level managers who can provide broad, overarching information about the business process
        and the expected role of the system being developed.
        
        Once the analyst has a good understanding of the big picture, lower-level managers and staff members can fill in the exact details
        of how the process works.
        
        Like most other things about systems analysis, this is an iterative
        process—starting with senior managers, moving to midlevel managers, then staff members, back to mid-level managers, and so
        on, depending upon what information is needed along the way.
      - Step 3: Preparing for the Interview
        
        Slide 38 (Jazrin)
        
        Its important to prepare for the interview in the same way that you would prepare to give a presentation
        
        Should have a general interview plan
        
        Confirm the areas in which the interviewee
        
        Review the topic areas, the questions, and the interview plan
        
        Slide 37 (Haziq)
        Bottom-up Strategy Interview
        
        When analyst has gathered enough information and wants some details to fill in some holes
        
        Appropriate for lower level staffs or if unable to answer higher level questions
        
        Interviews should start with noncontroversial questions then gradually increase onwards
        
        slide 40 (erik)
        ❑ Be sure to prepare the interviewee as well.
        ❑ When you schedule the interview, inform the interviewee of the reason for the interview and the areas you will be discussing far enough in advance so that he or she has time to think about the issues and organize his or her thoughts.
        ❑ This is particularly important when you are an outsider to the organization and for interviewing lower-level employees who often are not asked for their opinions and who may be uncertain about why you are interviewing them.
        
        Slide 35 (Abdullah)
        
        It is important to prepare for the interview in the same way that you would prepare to give a presentation.
        
        You should have a general interview plan which lists the questions that you will ask in the appropriate order; anticipates possible answers and provides how you will follow up with them; and identifies segues between related topics.
        
        Confirm the areas in which the interviewee has knowledge so You do not ask questions that he or she cannot answer.
        
        Review the topic areas, the questions, and the interview plan, and clearly decide which ones have the greatest priority in case you run out of time.
        
        slide 39 (arif)
        
        Carefully record all the information that the interviewee
        provides.
        
        The best approach is to take careful notes—write down everything the interviewee says, even if it does not appear
        immediately relevant
        
        Don’t be afraid to ask the person to slow down or to pause
        while you write, because this is a clear indication that the
        interviewee’s information is important to you.
        
        One potentially controversial issue is whether or not to taperecord the interview.
      - Step 2: Designing Interview questions
        
        Slide 24 gib
        
        Closed-ended Questions
        :star: used when the analyst is looking for specific,precise information
        
        slide 30 (athirah)
        
        Open-ended questions
        
        gather rich information
        
        give the interviewee more control over the information
    - - slide 48(WARDINA)
        
        helps to understand how the current system is supposed to work
        
        might out of date
        
        always obtain copies of actual forms & operating documents that currently in use
        
        Slide 49(Mauldorna)
        
        review blank copies of forms
        
        obtain document samples during interviews
        
        need to review the documentation when the system uses a software package
        
        Slide 50 (Abdullah)
        
        The observation of current operating procedures is another fact-finding technique
        
        Gives you additional perspective and a better understanding of system procedures.
        
        Allows you to verify statements made in interviews and determine whether procedures really operate as they are described.
        
        1 more item...
      - Slide 52 (Haziq)
        
        Forms and reports not used should be eliminated
        
        Boxes or questions that are never answered should be rethought
    - - SLIDE 47(Shahrul)
        
        Often, the interview report is sent to the interviewee with a request to read it and inform the analyst of clarifications or updates.
      - slide 46 (athirah)
        
        the analyst needs to prepare an
        interview report at the end of the interview.
        
        report must contains interview notes, information that was collected over the course of the interview and a useful summarized format.
  - - - Slide 59(Anding)
        
        Consider each user who works with the system and the following questions: What information does that person receive from other people?
        
        What information does this person generate?
        
        How is the information communicated?
      - Slide 57 (Catherine)
        
        Observe all the steps in a transaction and note the
        documents, inputs, outputs, and processes involved.
      - Slide 53 (Jazrin)
        
        Another fact-finding technique
        
        It gives you additional perspective and a better understanding of system procedures
        
        Allows you to verify statements made in interviews
      - Slide 58 (Dominic)
        
        Examine each form, record, and report.
        
        Determine the purpose each item of information serves.
      - slide 56 (Gib)
        Consider each user who works with the system and the following questions: What information does that person receive from other people?
        :red_flag: What information does this person generate
        :red_flag: How is the information communicated?
        :red_flag: How often do interruptions occur?
        :red_flag: How much downtime occurs?How much support does the user require, and who provides it?
      - slide 55(erik)
        ❑ Plan your observations in advance by preparing a
        checklist of specific tasks you want to observe and questions you want to ask.
        ❑ Consider the following issues when you prepare your list
      - Slide 60(Wan)
        
        Talk to the people who receive current reports to see whether the reports are complete, timely, accurate and in a useful form.
        
        Ask whether information can be eliminated or improved and whether people would like to receive additional information
      - slide 54 (arif)
        
        Observe all the steps in a transaction and note the
        documents, inputs, outputs, and processes involved.
    - - Slide 75(Anding)
        Questionnaire Follow-Up
        
        It is helpful to process the returned questionnaires and develop a questionnaire report soon after the questionnaire deadline. Also ensures that the analysis process proceeds in a timely fashion and that respondents who requested copies of the results receive them promptly.
      - Slide 73 (Catherine)
        Administering the questionnaire
        
        The key issue in administering the questionnaire is getting
        participants to complete the questionnaire and send it back.
        
        Commonly used techniques:
        a. stating a date by which the questionnaire is to be returned;
        b. offering an inducement to complete the questionnaire (e.g., a free pen);
        c. and offering to supply a summary of the questionnaire responses.
        
        Slide 74 (Dominic)
        Administering the questionnaire
        
        Systems analysts have additional techniques to
        improve responses rates inside thesuch as personally handing out the questionnaire
        and personally contacting those who have not organization,
        
        such as personally handing out the questionnaire
        and personally contacting those who have not returned them after a week or two,
        
        as well as requesting the respondents’ supervisors
        to administer the questionnaires in a group meeting.
      - slide 64(WARDINA)
        
        Ways to administer questions:
        
        mail
        
        telephone
        
        face-to-face interviews
        
        distributing paper
        
        electronically : email / web-based questionnaires
      - Constructing a questionnaire
        
        slide 79(WARDINA)
        
        Suggestions :
        
        avoid questions that may be too precise
        
        provide range e.g 0-5
        
        avoid questions that are too demanding & time consuming
        
        Slide 80(Mauldorna)
        
        Use mutually exclusive categories
        
        make sure one answer is possible
        
        avoid making assumption
        
        Slide 81 (Abdullah)
        
        Suggestions:
        
        Make the response categories clear
        and logical
        Example: Poor spacing 1. 0 acres 2. 1 -9 acres 3. 10-99 acres
        
        Use complete sentences
        
        1 more item...
        
        Slide 82(Syazwan)
        
        Suggestions
        
        1 more item...
        
        Slide 78 (Shahrul)
        
        Suggestions:
        
        Use mutually exclusive categories
        
        Avoid making assumptions
        
        slude 77 (athirah)
        
        Suggestions :
        :check: use simple wording
        :check: avoid the use of abbreviations or foreign phrases
        :check: be specific
        :check: clear wording
        
        Slide 76 (Wan)
        
        Wording the questionnaire
        
        Consider 3 things
        - Particular people - for whom the questionnaire is being designed
        
        Particular purpose
        
        How question will be placed
      - Slides 65(Mauldorna)
        
        Step for Conducting Questionnaire
        
        Selecting participants
        
        Designing the questionnaire
        
        Administering the questionnaire
        
        Questionnaire follow-up
      - slide 72(Gib)
        Systems analysts have additional techniques to improve responses rates inside the organization,
         such as personally handing out the questionnaire and personally contacting those who have not returned them after a week or two,
         as well as requesting the respondents’ supervisors to administer the questionnaires in a group meeting.
      - slide 71(erik)
        Designing the Questionnaire
        ❑ The key issue in administering the questionnaire is
        getting participants to complete the questionnaire and send it back.
        ❑ Commonly used techniques include clearly
        explaining why the questionnaire is being conducted and why the respondent has been selected;
      - SLIDE 62 (Shahrul)
        
        A questionnaire is a list of questions or items used to gather data from respondents about their attitudes, experiences, or opinions.
        
        slide 61 (athirah)
        
        "A questionnare is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents." Sir Francis Galton
      - Slide 66 (Abdullah)
        
        Developing good questions is critical for
        questionnaires because the information on a questionnaire cannot be immediately clarified for a confused respondent.
        
        Questions on questionnaires:
        
        very clearly written
        
        leave little room for misunderstanding (closed-ended questions)
        
        enable the analyst to clearly separate facts from
        opinions.
      - Slide 67 (Syazwan)
        
        Selecting Participants
        
        -On average, only 30%–50% of paper and e-mail questionnaires are returned. -Response rates for Web-Based questionaires tend to be significantly lower(5%-30%)
      - slide 70 (arif)
        
        stating a date by which the questionnaire is to
        be returned;
        
        offering an inducement to complete the
        questionnaire (e.g., a free pen);
        
        and offering to supply a summary of the
        questionnaire responses.
    - - Slide 90(Anding)
        Various Likert Scale
      - Closed-ended Questions
        
        Slide 88 (Catherine)
        4. Partially close-ended
        What topic do you feel should be the main program emphasis for the next year?
        
        Effective parenting
        
        Child development
        
        Guidance and discipline
        
        Communication
        
        Other (please specify)
        
        Slide 84 (Jazrin)
        
        list answers and respondent select either one or multiple responses
        
        slide 86 (erik)
      - Open-ended questions
        
        Slide 84 (Jazrin)
        
        Allow the respondent to provide their own answers
        
        Slide 83 (Haziq)
        Suggestions
        
        Categories are clear and logical
        
        Use complete sentences
      - Slide 89 (Dominic)
        Likert Scale
      - Slide 87 (Gib)
        Example of linkert Scale
      - Silde 91 (Wan)
        Likert Scale
      - slide 85 (arif)
      - Slide 82 (Syazwan)
    - - Slide 69 (Jazrin)
        Good Questionnaire Design
        
        Begin with nonthreatening and interesting questions
        
        Group items into logically coherent sections
        
        Do not put important items at the very end of the questionnaire
        
        Do not crowd a page with too many items
        
        Slide 68 (Haziq)
        
        Good questions is important because information cannot be immediately clarified for a confused respondent
        
        Questions on Questionnaire
        
        Clear
        
        Leave little for misunderstanding
        
        Separates facts from opinions
  - - - Slide 107(Anding)
        
        the systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
        
        an endeavour to discover new or collate old facts etc by the scientific study of a subject or by a course of critical investigation.
      - Slide 110 (Shahrul)
        
        Planning :
        
        Statement of the problem
        
        Literature review
        
        Choice of research method
        
        Design of study
        
        Data collection
        
        Analysis of data
        
        Write-up
      - slide 109 (athirah)
        
        to formulate question
        
        figure out how to answer it
        
        present the answer
      - Slide 108 (WAN)
        
        Research occur when we have a question or problem we want to resolve.
        
        We may already think we know the answer to our question already
        
        We may think the answer is obvious, common sense even
        
        But until we have subjected our problem to rigorrous scientific scrutiny, our "knowledge" remains little more than guesswork or at the best,intuition
    - - Slide 105 (Catherine)
        Probability Sampling : Cluster sampling.
        
        A cluster sample is obtained by selecting all individuals within a randomly selected collection or group of individuals.
        
        We use cluster sampling when our
        population is already broken up into groups (clusters), and each cluster represents the population. That way, we
        just select a certain number of clusters
        
        Slide 105 (Dominic)
        Sambungan Probability Sampling
        
        Let's suppose the 12 individuals are paired up just as they were sitting in the original population.
        
        Since we want a random sample of size four, we just select two of the clusters.
        
        We would number the clusters 1-6 and use technology to randomly select two random numbers.
      - Slide 101 (Jazrin)
        Probability Sampling : Stratified sampling
        
        Obtained by separating the population into non-overlapping groups called strata
        
        Then obtaining a proportional simple random sample from each group
        
        The individuals within each group should be similar in some way
        
        Slide 100 (Haziq)
        Probabilty Sampling: Random Sampling
        
        Names drawn out of a hat
        
        Random numbers to select from an ordered list
      - slide 96(WARDINA)
        
        Techniques in sampling :
        
        Probability sampling
        
        Purposive sampling
        
        No-rule sampling
      - Slide 97(Mauldorna)
        
        Probability Sampling
        
        when choose the appropriate technique
        
        to assure that the sample is representative
        
        estimate the errors for the sampling
        
        each element of the population:
        
        known non-zero probability of selection
      - Slide 104 (Gibson)
        Probability Sampling : Cluster sampling
        
        Let's suppose the 12 individuals are paired up just as they were sitting in
        the original population.
         Since we want a random sample of size four, we just select two of the clusters.
         We would number the clusters 1-6 and use technology to randomly select two random numbers.
      - slide 103 (erik)
        Probability sampling: systematic sampling
        
        ❑ A systematic sample is obtained by selecting every kth individual from the population.
        ❑ The first individual selected corresponds to a random
        number between 1 and k
      - Slide 95 (Shahrul)
        
        Population :
        
        the process of taking a subset of subjects that is representative of the entire population.
      - slide 94 (athirah)
        
        A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain information about the whole (Webster, 1985)
        
        defined as a set of respondents selected from a larger population for the purpose of a suvey
      - slide 102 (arif)
        
        In our example, we want to use 3 for k? Can you see why? Think what would happen if we used 2 or 4.
        
        For our starting point, we pick a random number between
        1 and k.
        
        For our visual, let's suppose that we pick 2. The individuals
        sampled would then be 2, 5, 8, and 11
      - Slide 98 (Abdullah)
        
        Probability Sampling :
        Random Sampling
        
        Names drawn out of a
        hat.
        
        Random numbers to
        select elements from an ordered list.
      - Slide(Syazwan)
        
        Random Sampling
        
        A sample of size n from a population
        of size N is obtained through simplerandom sampling if every possible
        sample of size n has an equally likely chance of occurring
        
        ❑ Each element in the population has
        an equal probability of selection AND each combination of elements
        has an equal probability of selection.
- - - - slide 8(WARDINA)
        
        example FDD :
      - Slide 7(Mauldorna)
        
        Decompose the first level components with functions
        
        then, continue to decompose to lower levels until sufficient details is achieved
        
        perform an end-to-end walk-through of the business operation
      - Slide 4 (Haziq)
        
        FDD is a top-down representation of a function or process
        
        To analyst functions and break down to lower level functions and process
        
        Creating FDD is similar to organizational chart
      - slide 9(Shahrul)
        
        Second example FDD:
        Bank Transaction Processing System
      - Slide 6 (ABdulllah)
        
        mostly used during the project analysis phase in order to produce functional decomposition diagrams as part of the functional requirements document.
        
        Is done after meeting with
        business analysts and subject matter expertise
      - Syazwan(slide5)
    - - Example of Patient Appointment Management
  - - - Slide 31(Anding)
        
        A data store is a collection of data that is stored in some way (which is determined later when creating the physical model).
        
        Every data store is named with a noun and is assigned an identification number and a description.
      - Slide 33 (Catherine)
        
        In cases in which the same process both stores data and retrieves data from a data store, there is a temptation to draw one data flow with an arrow on both ends.
        
        This practice is incorrect, however.
        
        The data flow that stores data and the data flow that retrieves data should always be shown as two separate data flows.
      - Slide 32 (Dominic)
        
        Data flows coming out of a data store indicate that
        information is retrieved from the data store.
        
        All data stores must have at least one input data flow
        (or else they never contain any data), unless they are created and maintained by another information system or on another page of the DFD.
        
        Likewise, they have at least one output data flow on some page of the DFD
      - Slide 34 (Gib)
        
        slide 35 (erik)
    - - Slide 37 (Jazrin)
        
        Entity has a name and a description
        
        External to the system but may or may not be part of the organization
        
        People who use the information from the system to perform other processes or decide what information goes into the system
        
        Slide 38 (Haziq)
        
        External entity has a noun and description
        
        Computer-aided fields
        
        Label (name)
        
        Type (entity)
        
        Description
        
        Alias (another name)
        
        Entity Description
        
        Notes
        
        Slide 39(Syazwan)
        
        Slide 40 (Abdullah)
        
        1 more item...
    - - slide 27(WARDINA)
        
        glue that holds the processes together
        
        one end of every data flow will always come from / go to a process
        
        shows what input go into each process & what output each process produces
      - Slide 26(Mauldorna)
        
        single pieces of data
        
        called data element
        
        logical collection of several pieces of information
        
        named with a noun
      - Slide 28 (Shahrul)
        
        A data-flow is a path for data to move from one part of the information system to another.
      - slide 29 (athirah)
        
        Data Flow Diagram Element
        
        every data flow has a name
        - a description - one or more connections to a process
        
        Typical Computer-Aided Software Engeneering Fields
        
        label (name)
        
        type (flow)
        
        description alias (another name)
        
        composition (description of data elements)
        
        notes
      - Slide 30 (Wan)
        
        DATA FLOW (Correct way and Incorrect way)
      - Slide 23(Syazwan)
        
        In general, each process performs only one activity, so most
        system analysts avoid using the word “and” in process names because it suggests that the process performs several activities.
      - Slide 25 ( Abdullah )
    - - Draw a Context Diagram
        
        You begin by reviewing the system requirements to identify all
        external data sources and destinations.
        
        During that process, you identify the entities, the name and
        content of the data flows, and the direction of the data flows.
        
        If you do that carefully, and you did a good job of fact-finding
        in the previous stage, you should have no difficulty drawing the context diagram.
        
        Now review the following context diagram examples.
  - - - Slide 47(Anding)
        CONTEXT DIAGRAM
        FOR A GRADING
        SYSTEM:
      - Slide 49 (Catherine)
        Example: Ordering System
        
        The WAREHOUSE entity has one
        incoming data flow — PICKING LIST — that is, a report that
        shows the items ordered and their quantity, location, and
        sequence to pick from the warehouse.
        
        The WAREHOUSE entity has one outgoing data flow, COMPLETED
        ORDER.
        
        Finally, the CUSTOMER entity
        has two outgoing data flows, ORDER and PAYMENT, and two
        incoming data flows, ORDER
        REJECT NOTICE and INVOICE.
      - SLIDE 43(WARDINA)
        
        start by placing a single process symbol in the centre of the page (identify as process 0)
      - Slide 41(Mauldorna)
        example of data flows
        
        correct and incorrect
      - Slide 48 (Dominic)
        
        ORDER SYSTEM process is at the center of the diagram and five entities surround the process.
        
        Three of the entities, SALES REP, BANK, and ACCOUNTING, have single incoming data flows for COMMISSION, BANK DEPOSIT, and CASH RECEIPTS ENTRY, respectively.
      - Slide 50 (Gib)
        • Diagram 0 (the numeral zero, and not the letter O) zooms in on the system and shows major internal processes, data flows, and data stores.
        • Diagram 0 also repeats the entities and data flows that appear in the context diagram.
        • When you expand the context diagram into DFD diagram 0, you must retain all the connections that flow into and out of process 0.
        • In a large system, each process in diagram 0 could represent a separate system such as inventory, production control, and scheduling.
        • Diagram 0 provides an overview of all the components that interact to form the overall system.
        • Now review the following diagram 0 examples.
        
        slide 51 (erik)
      - Slide 44 (Shahrul)
        
        Add all external entities around your system
        
        Add entity shapes to represent events that may interact with and influence your system. Entities can include other systems, users, data stores, and more.
        
        slide 45 (athirah)
        
        review the system requirements to identify all external data sources.
        
        identify the entities, the name and content together with the direction of the data flows
      - SIlde 46 (Wan)
        
        Context Diagram
    - - Slide 62(Anding)
        
        Balancing ensures that the input and output data flows of the parent DFD are maintained on the child DFD.
        
        For example, The two DFDs are balanced, because the child diagram at the bottom has the same input and output flows as the parent process 3 shown at the top.
        
        To verify the balancing, notice that the parent process 3,APPLY PAYMENT, has one incoming data flow from an external entity, and three outgoing data flows to external entities.
        
        Slide 63 (Dominic)
        Sambungan Balancing Example
        
        Now examine the child DFD, which is diagram 3. Now, ignore
        the internal data flows and count the data flows to and from external entities.
        
        You will see that the three processes maintain the same one
        incoming and three outgoing data flows as the parent process.
      - Slide 64 (Catherine)
        Example: Ordering System
    - - Slide 53 (Jazrin)
        
        A CUSTOMER submits an
        ORDER. The FILL ORDER process either sends an ORDER REJECT NOTICE back to the customer or sends a PICKING LIST to the WAREHOUSE
        
        Slide 54 (Haziq)
        
        Completed Order from WAREHOUSE as input to CREATE INVOICE
        
        Outputs an INVOICE to CUSTOMER and ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE entity
        
        Slide 55 (Syazwan)
      - slide 52 (arif)
    - - slide 58(WARDINA)
        
        create lower-level DFDs until all processes are identified as functional primitives that represents single processing functions
        
        leveling is also called as exploding, partitioning / decomposing
        
        Slide 59(Shahrul
        
        Example :
        Level 1 DFD
        
        slide 60 (athirah)
        
        level 2 DFD
        
        Slide 61 (WAN)
        
        Example DFD Level 1 Process 1
      - Slide 57(Mauldorna)
        
        Leveling:
        
        series of increasingly detailed DFDs
        
        example
        
        a system might consist of dozens of separate processes
        
        analyst
        
        creates diagram 0, which shows more details
      - Slide 56 (Abdullah)
        
        Based on the order system. To create lower-level diagrams, you must use leveling and balancing techniques.
        
        Leveling is the process of drawing a series of increasingly detailed diagrams, until all functional primitives are identified.
        
        Balancing maintains consistency among a set of DFDs by ensuring that input and output data flows align properly.
  - - - Slide 82(Anding)
        
        Documenting the Entities*
        
        Typical characteristics of an entity include
        
        Entity name
        
        Description
        
        Alternate name(s)
        
        Input data flows: the input data flows co the entity.
        
        Output data flows: the data flows leaving the entity.
    - - Slide 87 (Gib)
        PROCESS DESCRIPTION TOOLS
        • A process description documents the details of a functional primitive, which represents a specific set of processing steps and business logic.
        • When a functional primitive is analysed, the processing steps are broken down into smaller units in a process called modular design.
        
        slide 88(erik)
        Process Description Tools
        
        Using a set of process description tools, a
        model is created that is accurate, complete, and concise.
        
        typical process description tools:
        – Structured English
        – Decision Tables
        – Decision Trees
    - - Slide 71 (Jazrin)
        
        Data element called a data item or field
        
        The smallest piece of data that has meaning within an information system
        
        Example: ID number, salary, student grade
        
        Data elements are combined into records also called data structures
        
        Slide 72(Haziq)
        
        Record is a meaningful combination of
        related data elements in data flow or data store
      - Slide 75(Mauldorna)
        
        attribute are recorded and describes in data dictionary
        
        Data element name
        and label
        
        Alias
        
        Type & length
        
        Default value
        
        Source: the origination point data element's values
        
        security: Identification access
      - slide 70 (arif)
      - Documenting the data elements
        
        You must document every data element in the data dictionary
        
        The objective is to provide clear, comprehensive information about the data and processes that make up the system
      - Slide 74 (Abdullah)
    - - slide 77(WARDINA)
        
        Documenting the Data Flows
        
        typical attributes :
        
        Data flow name / label
        Description
        
        Alternate name(s)
        
        Origin : The DFD beginning / source
        
        Destination : The DFD ending point(s)
        
        Record
        
        Volume & frequency : the expected number of occurences
      - Slide 78(Shahrul)
        
        Typical characteristics of a data store are :
        
        Data store name or label
        
        Description
        
        Alternate name(s)
        
        Attributes: DFD names that enter or leave the data score.
        
        Volume and frequency: the estimated number of records,
        how frequently they are updated.
      - slide 80 (athirah)
        
        Data Dictionary: Processes
        
        documenting the process :
        
        characteristics of a process
        
        process name or label
        
        description
        
        process number
        
        process description
        
        Slide 81 (Wan)
        Processes
        
        The process number identifies this process.
    - - Slide 66 (Gibson)
        A data dictionary, or data repository, is a central storehouse of information about the system's data.
        • An analyst uses the data dictionary to collect, document, and organize specific facts about the system including the contents of data flows, data stores, entities, and processes.
        • The data dictionary also defines and describes all data elements and meaningful combinations of data elements
        
        slide 67 (erik)
  - - - Slide 99(Anding)
        
        Example: You want to create a decision table based on the Verify Order business process. When documenting a process, it is important to ensure that you list every possibility.
        
        In this example, the process description contains two conditions: product stock status and customer credit status.
        
        If both conditions are met, the order is accepted. Otherwise the order is rejected.
        
        Slide 100 (Dominic)
        
        Decision Table - TABLES WITH TWO CONDITIONS
    - - Slide 101 (Catherine)
        
        Example: A company now decides that the credit manager can waive the customer credit requirement. That creates a third condition, so there will be eight possible rules.
        
        Slide 102 (Gibson)
        
        This table is based on the verify order conditions .With 3 conditions,there are eight possible combination or rules
        
        slide 103(erik)
        
        The first condition uses a pattern of Y-Y-Y-Y followed by N-N-N-N; the second condition uses a repeating Y-YN-N pattern; and the pattern in the third condition is a series of Y-Ns.
        
        THEN, SIMPLIFY THE TABLE
        Rules :
        
        Study each combination of conditions and outcomes. When you have rules with three conditions, only one or two of them may control the outcome, and the other conditions simply do not matter.
        
        • If you identify conditions that do not affect the outcome, mark them with dashes(-)
        
        Now combine and renumber the rules
        
        slide 104 (arif)
    - - Slide 90 (Jazrin)
        
        Sequence
        
        The completion of steps in sequential order, one after another
        
        Slide 91 (Haziq)
        2.0 Selection
        
        Completion of 2 or more processes based on results of rest or condition
      - slide 95(WARDINA)
        
        Process Description Tools: Structured English example
        
        Slide 94(Mauldorna)
        
        Might look familiar to programming students:
        
        because it resembles pseudocode
        
        ensures that
        process descriptions are understandable
        
        Slide 93 (Abdullah)
        
        Structured English:
        Must conform to the following rules
        
        Use only the three building blocks of sequence, selection, and iteration.
        
        Use indentation for readability
        
        Use a limited vocabulary, including standard terms used in the data dictionary and specific words that describe the processing rules
      - Slide 96(Shahrul)
        
        Decision Tables
        
        A decision table is a graphical way to map conditions against actions: it expresses the fact that certain actions are to be performed only if certain conditions (or combination thereof) are satisfied.
        
        slide 97 (athirah)
        
        4 types of Decision Table :
        - tables with one condition - tables with two conditions - tables with three conditions - multiple outcomes
      - slide 89 (arif)
        
        TABLES WITH ONE CONDITION
        
        If a process has a single condition, there only are two possibilities –
        yes or no.
        
        Either the condition is present or it is not, so there are only two
        rules.
        
        For example, to trigger an overtime calculation, the process
        condition might be: Are the hours greater than 40?
        
        If so, the calculation is made. Otherwise, it is not.
      - Slide 92(Syazwan)
        
        Iteration looping = the completion of a process step that is repeated until a specific condition changes
    - - Slide 105 (Jazrin)
        
        In addition to multiple conditions, decision tables can have more than two possible outcomes
        
        Slide 106 (Haziq)
        
        Rule 1, all conditions met, both 5% discounts apply
        
        Rule 2, order more than $1000, does not use charge card, only 5% discount apply
        
        Rule 3 and 4 combined as one
        IF $1000 or more, with or without charge card, either way only earns them a $25 coupon
        Thus, Rule 3 and 4 are considered as a single rule
        
        Slide 107(Syazwan)Decision table
        
        Rules 5,6,7 and 8 also can be conbined into a single rule because if the person is not a preferred customer, he and she can only receive a $5 bonus coupon, and the other conditions simply do not matter.
        
        So, you insert a dash if a condition is irrelevant, as shown in figure 5-41
    - - slide 110(WARDINA)
        
        example of decision tree diagram
        
        Slide 111(Shahrul)
        
        slide 112 (athirah)
        
        Logical Versus Physical Models
        
        shows how the system’s requirements
        
        create a physical model of the new information system that follows from the logical model
        
        involves operational tasks
      - read from left to right, with the conditions along the various branches and the actions at the far right.
      - Slide 108 (Abdullah)
        
        Definition
        
        Graphical representation of the conditions,
        actions, and rules found in a decision table
        
        Whether to use a decision table or tree often is a
        matter of personal preference
    - - Slide 98 (WAN)
        
        Have one condition and only have 2 possibilities Wich is "Yes" or "No".
        
        Only have 2 rules
        
        Example Are the houes greater than 40 ?
        If yes, The calculation is made, If not, The process terminated.
  - - - Slide 15(Anding)
        
        Data flow diagramming is a technique that diagrams the business processes and the data that pass among them.
        
        Data modeling, presents how the data created and used by processes are organized.
        
        Process modeling—and creating DFDs in particular—is one of the most important skills needed by systems analysts.
      - Slide 14 (Wan)
        
        Process model describe business processes.
        
        Process Models developed for as-is system and/or the to-be system.
        
        Many different process modelling techniques today.
        
        We focus use data flow diagram
    - - Slide 18 (Catherine)
        
        DFD focus on the flow of information, where data comes from, where it goes and how it gets stored.
        -Graphical representation of the "flow" of data through an
        information system;
        -Modelling process aspects;
        -An overview of the system;
        -For the visualization of data processing (structured design);
        -What kinds of information will be input to and output from the
        system;
        -Where the data will come from and go to;
        -Where the data will be stored.
      - Slide 17 (Dominic)
        DFD
        
        Diagram that shows how the system scores, processes, and transforms data into useful information
        
        A data flow diagram(DFD) shows how data moves through an information system but does not show program logic or processing steps
        
        A set of DFDs provides a logical model that shows what the system does, not how it does it.
        
        That distinction is important because focusing on implementation issues at this point would restrict your search for the most effective system design.
      - slide 19 (gib)
        Reading DFD
        
        Start reading diagrams from left to right,top to bottom
      - slide 20(erik)
        • There are four symbols in the DFD language
        (processes, data flows, data stores, and external entities), each of which is represented by a different
        graphic symbol.
        • There are two commonly used styles of symbols, one set developed by Chris Gane and Trish Sarson and the other by Tom DeMarco and Ed Yourdon
    - - Slide 22 (Jazrin)