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Dissertation - Coggle Diagram
Dissertation
Justification
From the field:
We need strong, knowedgable professionals
Staff
New professionals
Attrition rates within first six years is 20-40%
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Factors:
Job dissatisfaction
Work overload
Lack of career advancement opportunities
Lack of mentoring
Inadequate supervision
Poor vocational fit
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
When someone joins an institution, it represents the investment of time and monetary resources in searching, selecting, and onboarding a new professional. Attrition of a professional means a loss of that investment in addition to loss of the knowledge they posses.
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
(Lamb et al., 2018)
Supervision the key factor in new professionals' decision to leave a position
(Barham & Winston, 2006)
"Enhancing supervision skills" one of the top six needs for new professionals
(Cilente, 2006)
Front-line staff responsible for providing programs and services
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
New professionals desire in supervision process:
Supervisor accessibility, physically and approachability
Meaningful interactions with supervisor
Proper utilization of formal evaluations
Providing unique supervision
Priority of professional development in the supervisory relationship
(Shupp & Arminio, 2012)
Current professionals
Continuing training
Rare for mid-level or above
(Lamb et al., 2017)
(Wood et al., 1985)
Current professionals learn supervision by:
* Self-guided strategies
Books and journals
Talking to mentors
Attending conferences
Observing other supervisors
Relying on intuition
(Howard, 2021)
(Lamb et al., 2018)
Lack of training in supervision and has been such for a while
(Harnet & Murphy, 1998)
(Howard, 2021)
(Jackson et al., 2009)
(Stock-Ward & Javorek, 2003)
Continued training takes time, meaning new supervisors have a delay in most potential to be great
(Lamb et al., 2018)
Workshops and training through own institutions:
Not offered in every institution
Lack of consistency across trainings
Effectiveness is mixed opinion
Focus a lot on leadership
(Lamb et al., 2018)
Overall lack for community college staff
(Lamb et al., 2018)
These forms of trainings are not the preferred method, yet still prevail as most prevalent
(Shupp & Arminio, 2012)
Mid-level or higher
Currently depend on experience, learning through trial and error, "on the job", "trial by fire"
(Lamb et al., 2018)
Seasoned professionals share the responsibility in the training of emerging new professionals via supervision
(Shupp & Arminio, 2012)
Lack of meaningful supervision can lead to staff feeling unappreciated, undervalued, isolated, or even disconnected from the institution
(Tull et al., 2015)
Supervisors themselves
When new supervisors don't have the proper skills, they tend to default to working harder themselves, contributing to their own burnout, which leads to further staff disengagement
(Harned & Murphy, 1998)
Some believe that competent and well-adjusted staff don't need supervision, and that supervision is just for when someone commits some sort of transgression that needs to be addressed
(Winston & Creamer, 1997)
Organizations
Organizational support hinges on supervision, and supervision influences new professionals' satisfaction and ultimately retention in an organization
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
It's the organization's duty to train competent supervisors as poor supervision negatively affects the organization as a whole
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Fit?
Could be mitigated by training to eliminate subjectivity in assessment?
Lack of research
Most research focuses on supervisor-supervisee relationship
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Tends to focus on new professionals' experiences or supervisors only of new professionals
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
“Voices from supervisors about everyday situations, circumstances, and experiences are largely absent from the body of literature on the supervision and socialization of new professionals in student affairs."
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Little focus on staff who work in community colleges
(Lamb et al., 2018)
The impact of a supervisor's multicultural competence on the supervisory relationship is not thoroughly studied within a student affairs context
(Shupp et al., 2018)
It's not taught in grad programs
Too much to learn to leave to chance
How to work with a supervisee used to a different style?
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Supervisors with supervisors feel extra tension and struggle with passing information along to own supervisee
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
There are legal and ethical ramifications for supervision, including annual trainings and the changes of higher ed in general
(Elrod et al., 2019)
It's just not taught in master's level coursework
(Lamb et al., 2018)
"Student affairs departments assume that supervision is learned in graduate preparation programs, and academic programs believe supervision is learned on the job."
(Holmes, 2014)
"Supervision as a competency should be taught in preparation programs." (pg. 65)
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
New professionals rarely enter the field with a strong understanding of how to supervise others
(Cilente et al., 2006)
(Howard, 2021)
Lack of formal training is a detriment
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
(Elrod et al., 2019)
(Howard, 2021)
Need exposure to many different styles
(Elrod et al., 2019)
New professionals out of grad programs don't feel prepared to supervise even undergraduate students
(Davis, 2004)
(Waple, 2006)
(Winston & Creamer, 1997)
Having a master's degree in student affairs didn't help mid-level professionals feel prepared to supervise professional staff
(Nichols & Baumgartner, 2016)
Professionals went from "working with students" to "supervising others" and experiences the challenges along with that only when they assumed their first mid-level role
(Nichols & Baumgartner, 2016)
Considering the impact of supervision in creating equitable spaces, students need to know how to do it
(Elliott et al., 2021)
How are new supervisors supposed to know how to responsibly utilize their power, without replicating oppressive norms, if they are not prepared to do so?
Next steps
New supervisor mentorship program?
Include in grad programs:
Organizational/Administration courses
Group processes
Professional development
Practicum/Internship
Possible curriculum:
Types of supervision styles
Focusing on styles that are supportive of staff
How to conduct individual meetings
Communication skills
Avoiding micromanaging
In the end, students should walk away with an idea of a synthesized supervision philosophy
(Elrod et al., 2019)
Utilize pandemic to address all existing systems
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Equity
Higher education institutions continue to perpetuate norms of dominant groups and colonization
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Socialization
Socialization into the field of student affairs is key, since most SAEs learned about it from another SAE who encouraged them to pursue. Does that extend to the importance of socialization into supervisory role?
Professional identity
Caring administrators and staff impact professional development positively
(Clarke, 2016)
ongoing interactions and relationships with individuals in helping roles that serve to deepen understanding of the importance of student affairs professionals in the lives of students
(Clarke, 2016)
Student Affairs
People find and enter the student affairs field by accident, not from the start of college career (Clarke, 2016)
Many challenges in higher ed:
Equity, access, and inclusion concerns
Student mental health and safety
Affordability of college
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Specific to SA:
Increased attendance of students with mental health issues
Expectations to assess learning outcomes
Meeting more educational goals with fewer resources
Threats of legal liability
(Shupp & Arminio, 2012)
Roles
New Professionals:
New to 5 years
Tend to be the ones who meet students/issues head-on
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Relationship-oriented field where building and maintaining relationships with colleagues, students, and shareholders is essential
(Schwartz, 2017)
Methods
Data Collection
Interview
Ensuring trustworthiness
Member checking
Test the questions ahead of time and allow participants to take part in the verification of accuracy of transcriptions, and clarification of data
(Fassinger, 2005)
Peer reviewing
Peer debriefing - checking and interrogating the coding, categories, and such for the data
(Fassinger, 2005)
Inquiry auditing - checking and interrogating the process and product
(Fassinger, 2005)
Bracketing interview
Participant process
During particularly painful moments, assure the participant that while data collection will continue, you will go back and discuss the pain after the interview is concluded
(Fassinger, 2005)
Interviewer
Researcher is also a cocreator of the interaction of the interview, and the data collected are influenced by the philosophical underpinnings and experiences of the interviewer
(Fassinger, 2005)
Sharing facets of identity with participant can impact the process of establishing rapport and trust
(Fassinger, 2005)
Memo writing - also data, but includes the evolving ideas, assumptions, hunches, uncertainties, insights, feelings, and choices made by the researcher
(Fassinger, 2005)
Grounded Theory
Rooted in sociology and symbolic interactionism
(Fassinger, 2005)
Interrogate how meaning is formed through social interactions and attempt to discover how groups of people define their realities based on their understandings of interpersonal interactions
(Fassinger, 2005)
Generates theory that is grounded in the data collected from participants on the bases of the complexities of their lived experiences in a social context
(Fassinger, 2005)
Collecting data, coding, conceptualizing, theorizing, over and over with new data being incorporated until no new themes are found
(Fassinger, 2005)
Pros:
Builds theory where there is little
Capacity to capture subtleties
Fresh look at a phenomenon with little preconceive notion as possible
Highly structured where it needs to be
(Fassinger, 2005)
Cons:
Labor intensive
Researcher-dependent
Researcher bias
Hard to report results succinctly
Small sample sizes
(Fassinger, 2005)
Data Analysis
Coding procedures
Open - units of meaning, labeled and interrogated until placed into categories
Axial - relationships among categories are organized and further explicated into more encompassing categories and subcategories
Selective - creation of the substantive theory from a core category that explains the whole and tells the whole story
(Fassinger, 2005)
Constant comparative method - involves comparing data from different individuals, comparing data from individuals to their own data at different points in their narratives, comparing incidents with other incidents, and comparing categories with other categories
(Charmaz, 2000)
Theoretical sampling - continued sampling occurring concurrently with data analysis, and as new data are collected based on the gaps and questions from the existing data, more data get collected
(Fassinger, 2005)
Supervision
Student Affairs Supervision
Quality of supervision
Seven core competencies include administrative and management skills, but not supervision specifically
(Clarke, 2016)
Component of bolstering new professional socialization and reducing attrition
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Good supervisory skills are related to job satisfaction, staff development, and the achievement of institutional and individual goals
(Winston & Creamer, 1997)
The supervision given to new professionals will impact their learning and how well they master the skills in the profession
(Ignelzi, 1998)
Supervisory Relationship
Supervisory relationship holds greatest potential for influencing self-image, career satisfaction, and professional development
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Supervisory experiences can resonate throughout professional career
(Clarke, 2016)
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Negative and positive experiences both can motivate new supervisors to do better
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Supervision includes the use of power, whether good or bad
Mentoring includes mutuality and agreement on power dynamics
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Can be used destructively to create environments centered in fear, conformity, and replication of dominant systems of power
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Power with - finding common ground to solidarity
Power to - shifts power flow from high to low
Power within - recognizing and respecting the differences of others; self-worth and self-knowledge are foundational
(Elliott et al., 2021)
(Howard, 2021)
When the supervisor holds power in a display of dominance and the supervisee is of a minoritized background, the supervisee's job satisfaction and retention decrease
(Nilsson & Duan, 2007)
Supervisors and mentorship overlap, but are not the same
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Supervisors must be actively building relationships, both supervisory and professional
(Shupp & Arminio, 2017)
There are strong, positive correlations between:
Frequency of diversity conversations between supervisor and supervise
AND
Supervisee's ultimate multicultural competence
AND
Frequency of feedback regarding diversity initiatives or interactions
(Shupp et al., 2018)
What is it?
"Supervision in higher education is a management function intended to promote the achievement of institutional goals and to enhance the personal and professional capabilities and performance of staff. Supervision interprets the institutional mission and focuses human and fiscal resources on the promotion of individual and organizational competence."
(Winston & Creamer, 1997)
A complex process influenced by:
Individual characteristics of supervisees
Personal history and experiences of supervisors
Institutional context
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Characteristics/Skills
Requires a balance of building relationships and managing work responsibilities
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
"Diagnosing needs of supervisees comes from years of experience working with and supervising others"
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
An enjoyable and positive experience overall
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Focus on people instead of production
Not doing so can be done unconsciously even by the most well-intentioned of supervisors
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Developmental lens: required in order to communicate with others, affirm staff, and approach accountability
(Howard, 2021)
One of the most complex activities that student affairs professionals are called upon to perform
(Winston & Creamer, 1997)
Multifaceted role:
Leader
Role model
Coach
*Disciplinarian
Colleague to staff
(Howard, 2021)
Seen as a skill that is intuitive, like parenting, instead of learned
(Shupp & Arminio, 2012)
Mentorship, transactional, or a mix
(Elliott et al., 2021)
"Any relationship where one person has the responsibility to provide leadership, direction, information, motivation, or support for one or more persons"
(Schuh & Carlisle, 1991)
Person-centered activity that influences the accomplishment of goals and priorities for the division/office
(Howard, 2021)
Barriers
Lack of supervision/direction for new professionals just out of grad school
Supervisor lacks understanding of the student affairs profession
Lack of communication
Lack of focus on supervisee/lack of time spent with supervisee
Close-mindedness and lack of trust
(Shupp & Arminio, 2012)
Approaches
Synergistic
Considered best approach for student affairs work
(Davis & Cooper, 2017)
Characteristics:
Systematic
Ongoing
Focus on competence
Goal and growth oriented
Holistic in nature
Dual focus on supervisee and organizational priorities
A joint effort between supervisor and supervisee
Two-way communication and feedback loop
(Winston & Creamer, 1997; 1998)
A process designed to support employees as they promote the goals of their organization and advance their leadership development
(Shupp & Arminio, 2012)
A valid construct for student affairs staff supervision
(Saunders et al., 2000)
Identity-Conscious Supervision
Liberational, equitable tool
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Way of being vs. way of doing
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Center of model is relationship with self and others
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Value of the relationship affirms the individual humanity of both the supervisor and supervisee
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Mitigate conflict in a critical and authentic way
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Most used in community colleges:
Adaptive or situational
Authoritative
Democratic
Laissez faire
Participative
Transformational
Servant leadership
Synergistic
(Elrod et al., 2019)
Restorative Practices
Comes from outside of student affairs
(Howard, 2021)
Humans are happier, more productive and cooperative, and more likely to make positive behavioral changes when people with authority do things with them than to or for them
(Wachtel, 2015)
"A participatory response to wrongdoing, and many other formal, informal, proactive, or responsive strategies" in helping professions
(Wachtel, 2015)
Four components:
Social discipline window
Fair process
Understanding shame and affect
The RP continuum
(Howard, 2021)
A relational framework that uses social capital to promote communication, build trust within organizations, influence behavior, and build and maintain relationships where power dynamics are involved
(Wachtel, 2016)
Leading
with
Howard's findings:
Influences on supervisory communication
Approaches to accountability conversations
Opportunities to reflect on supervision
(Howard, 2021)
These are difficult skills to ascertain without some sort of knowledge
Collaborative and relational approaches are more effective than punitive or permissive styles (Howard, 2021)
Supervisor Qualities
Good supervisors:
* Strong administrative skills
Organization
Good communication skills
Humor
Concise information giving
Detail-oriented
Good writing skills
Self-reflects on supervision given
Sets reasonable deadlines
Relational supervisory approach
(Calhoun & Nasser, 2013)
Good qualities reflect in both supervisee and own supervisor seeing them as effective
(Boehman, 2007)
Inclusive Supervision Inventory for Student Affairs (ISISA)
Creation of safe spaces
Cultivation of the whole self
Supervisor vulnerability
Capacity building in others
(Shupp et al., 2018)
Inherently personal and political
(Elliott et al., 2021)
Conceptual Lens
Lived experience
Position-specific behaviors are often self-taught by observing others
(Cilente, 2006)