✓ (done) Machiavelli: The Prince
HISTORY OF MACHIAVELLI
- Born May 3, 1469 in Florence, Italy
- Witnessed the overthrowing of the Medici family (oligarchic despots ruling Florence) and the rise of Girolamo Savanorola, a Dominican religious leader
- Lived when Italy was in intense political conflict: papacy vs city-states of Florence, Milan, Venice, Naples vs the Holy Roman Empire vs France & Spain
- The very year Machiavelli returned to Florence, Italy was invaded by Charles VIII of France -- one of the many French invasions that will occur in his lifetime
MACHIAVELLI'S POSITION IN POLITICS
- At 29, became the head of Second Chancery and secretary to the Council of Ten for War to Florentine government
- Sent to France on a diplomatic mission in 1500
→ Has political thought influenced (and The idea of The Prince character) by Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander who was installed by King Louise XII in exchange for marriage annulment
- believed that Borgia, though cunning and and cruel, had the traits necessary for any leader to unify Italy
Purpose of Writing The Prince
- Trying to win over Lorenzo de' Medici's favor to take back his position by writing advice to him as him being the Prince in The Prince
- Wrote The Prince partly to help Italy become more stable and powerful in the face of its aggressive neighbors
- The book was being criticized as being immoral and wicked
Three revolutionary aspects of The Prince
1) The separation of politics and ethics
2) Less theoretical in nature than previous political theory
3) The affirmation of Machiavelli's belief in free will as opposed to divine destiny
- contrasts the traditional linking of political law to higher moral laws
- historical evidence was treated pragmatically instead of hypothetical notions
- less of a philosophical treatise and more of a practical political guide
- the ideation of political action always needing to be considered in light of practical consequences.
opposed to Medieval and Renaissance thinkers often turning to religion for explaining diseases, invasions, war and crisis
they consider these to be beyond human's power to prevent
Machiavelli however argues that people can defend themselves from calamities
has confidence in human self-determination
Chapters
Chapter 1 (I): The Kinds of Principalities and the Means by Which They Are Acquired
Machiavelli describes the different kind of states. He argues all states are either republics or principalities.
- 3 types: heriditary principalities or new principalities, or mixed
- new principalities are completely new or new additions to existing states
- a prince can acquire a principality through his own army, or through others' army
Chapter 2 (II): Hereditary Principalities
1/3 Chapters which focuses on methods to govern and maintain principalities
- argues it is easier to govern a hereditary state than a new principality, with two reasons:
1) The subjects are familiar with the prince's family, establishing a familiarity
2) the nature of the people would be to love the ruling family.
∴ The ruler then can reconquer the state if the outsider invading the state encounters obstacles
Chapter 3 (III): Mixed Principalities
Explains why maintaining a new principality is more challenging than maintaining a hereditary state
people will trade a new ruler for another with the hope that they would be better than the existing ruler.
however, with the prince taking over the role of the previous, the subjects expect the fulfillment of their expectations.
- the failure to meet expectations will induce subjects to bear arms and cause disorder
∴ after taking power, the ruler faces the prospect of losing the principality
HOW TO TACKLE
- A prince should successfully suppress a revolt
The ruler then can punish rebels and disintegrate opposition to prevent further revolt
States with same customs vs states without
To keep control over a new principality with the same language and customs as the ruler's own country, the prince only has to carry out two actions:
1) decimate former ruler's family,
2) maintain laws and taxes of principality
This will prevent people from causing disorder as their old ways of life are not changed.
To keep control over a principality that is not of the same customs and language, the prince has to reside in the new state
- by doing so, it helps address issues more efficiently
Another way to deal with differences is to establish colonies
- less expensive to establish colonies than establish military occupation
- the prince should only harm people with the certainty of no threat for revenge.
- military bases displease the subjects and might invoke hostile enemies capable of causing harim to the regime.
- prevents local officials from unscrupulous territory robbery
- subjects, being in close contact with the prince, will show their allegiance and will fear to oppose as punishment is near and swift.
Chapter 4 (IV): Why Alexander’s Successors Were Able to Keep Possession of Darius’ Kingdom after Alexander’s Death
The two ways to govern a principality
Appointing ministers
Having nobles
- better than involving nobles as he is the only ruler in the country
- everyone remains subservient to the prince
- harder to take over a country as ministers have little incentive to be corrupted
- nobles have subjects of their own and the prince is not the sole ruler
- a corrupted noble will corrupt the support of his subjects
Chapter 5 (V): How to Govern Cities and Principalities That, Prior to Being Occupied, Lived Under Their Own Laws
Three ways to hold those states
1) Devastate them
2) The conqueror should occupy them
3) Allow state to maintain its laws, but install a oligarchy and charge taxes
- complete devastation is the most certain way of taking hold of a state: a prince who does not destroy placers himself in the position to be destroyed.
- Occupying: killing the ruling family (see ch 3)
- the subjects will be used to being ruled by a new ruler since the previous ruler have been destroyed and need someone to rule over them
SPARKNOTE ANALYSIS FOR BUNDLED CHAPTERS
Analysis — Chapters I–IV (1-4)
- uses both historical examples and methodical argument to back claims
- brings about directness and practicality by simple definitive terms and clarity.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MACHIAVELLI'S PHILOSOPHY AND OTHER PHILOSOPHIES OF GOVERNMENT
- description of the ordinary subject is different from other philosophers
Aristotle: considers free citizens (men, since women and slaves are disregarded) as the main reason for state's existence
Machiavelli: However, Machiavelli sees the subjects as simpleminded -- they hate or love their rule only on the basis of their expectations, and the prince can maintain control with little concern for their welfare.
Chapter 6 (VI): Concerning New Principalities Acquired by One’s Own Arms and Ability
It will be challenging for the prince to rely on his prowess to rule. Therefore, he should set out to imitate the examples set by great rulers of the past.
This way, even if the prince does not live up to the standards, his attempt will still give him a reputation of a great or powerful ruler
However, using your own prowess is still a way of acquiring states. A principality acquired as such would be easier to maintain control over.
- This is due to meeting the challenge of establishing a new order
A prince who uses his prowess will succeed by forcing the issue, even through force -- he will become strong, secure, and respected.
A prince who uses fortune (persuasion) to introduce a new order will be unable to succeed against fierce opposition.
Chapter 7 (VII): Concerning New Principalities Acquired with the Arms and Fortunes of Others
Laying a solid foundation for rule is crucial to maintain power.
Those who become a prince through good fortune -- through favors by someone in power, bribing soldiers -- lack a foundation of loyal troops and knowledge of problem solving, thus causing power to slip out their hands.
Machiavelli brings Cesare Borgia as an example. He came to rule with fortune (his father was Pope Alexander VI) but his power fell even though he was loved and feared by his subjects. He, however, lay a strong base for future rule as he also had prowess.
Chapter 8 (VIII): Concerning Those Who Become Princes by Evil Means
Analysis — Chapters V–VII (5-7)
- shows the coldhearted logic Machiavelli is criticized for
- his rational does not account morality or ethics; it is instead strictly pragmatic
- he potrays citizens as simpleminded, unintelligent people naturally disposed to be under a ruler
- the people hardly matter in Machiavelli's ideology: as Louise XIV said -- 'L'etat, cest moi' (the state is me). That echoes the philosophy in The Prince: the ruler is the state and the state is the ruler.
This though does not men Machiavelli ignores the support of people to uphold a regime. Machiavelli is simply not concerned with the motivations of the people.
the primary and only virtue Machiavelli shows is the self-determination of the prince: he needs to rely on his own prowess, have the loyalty of his army, surround himself with those who will not undermine him.
Someone can become a prince through evil means, like crime. Those people can achieve power, but never glory.
EXAMPLE: King Agathocles of Syracuse: common man who joined the militia, rose to a leading rank in the army, and ordered his men to kill all the senators and install him in power.
Agathocles proved competent in his reign and only used cruelty in the first sense to his ascension.
Therefore, when a prince wants to seize a principalitiy, he must measure the amount of cruelty to engage in, and then strike once and never engage in atrocities again.
Chapter 9 (IX): Concerning the Civil Principality
Following Chapter 8, another way a prince can take power is through the favor of his fellow citizens.
There are two types of people: common people and nobles.
Common people
want to avoid opression by the nobles
Nobles
naturally want to oppress common people
This can lead to either 1) a principality, 2) a free city, or 3) anarchy
Nobles
Common people
upon realizing they cannot dominate people, they will instate their own prince.
a prince instated by nobles will have more difficulty maintaining power as nobles can undermine his position easily, as equals.
- if they realize they cannot be under the domination of the nobles, they will make one of the people a prince for protection
- a prince with the support of his people will have more absolute power and only risk desertion
- to keep the people's support, the prince should be benevolent to them. therefore, cruelty should only be exercised during establishment of power.
Chapter 10 (X): How the Strength of All Principalities Should Be Measured
Analysis — Chapters VIII–IX (8-9)
- describes how different types of prince should establish power
- acknowledges the necessity of cruelty and crime in coming to power
- instead of advising on the scope of cruelty, Machiavelli argues cruel acts must be committed necessarily and all at once. Then, it must definitively ceased as the prince must act benevolently to hold support.
- the distinction between power and glory that Machiavelli has shows that he might have a small weightage of morality in that distinction.
- he characterizes the use of cruelty as ''evil'', therefore bringing it about as a necessary evil. this therefore contradicts the idea of The Prince being amoral, as he recognises the immorality in it.
- however, it can be argued that there are more ways to win support than just through cruelty or benevolance.
it is important to not only have a sizeable army equal to or more than the aggressor, it is also important to maintain defense strategies.
- the prince should also inspire his subjects during such times, invoking patriotism and reassuring that the struggles are temporary and for a greater good.
Chapter 11 (XI): Concerning Ecclesiastical Principalities
Ecclesiastical Principalities: under the control of the Catholic Church (theocracy/papacy)
- taking control of these principalities will be problematic, requiring either favorable fortune or great prowess
- the prince does not even need to govern as principles of religions rule the subjects, not the government
1) they do not need to be defended
2) the people require no administration
3) YET they are always secure and happy
- looking at how the Church obtained its power: though papal power was fairly weak during the time of pope vs city states, Popes Alexander VI and Julius II used armed forces to weaken other factions
- through those armed forces, they accumulated wealth to strengthen Church's position and gain temporal (i.e. material) power
Analysis — Chapters X–XI (10-11)
- one characteristic of The Prince is how the city is defined to serve the ruler rather than the population.
- the ultimate aim is less about citizen happiness and more about patriotism: the idea of defending the state and therefore, the ruler.
- so the aim of obtaining support of people is the means to ensuring the city is defended and so is the ruler.
- in chapter XI, Machiavelli is actually against the Church in politics (he takes up this view in his other book, Discourses)
- does not relate the Church being in politics as a way of a state being in a higher moral plane, though he does identify them as principalities. he just sees them as any other state.
Chapter 12 (XII): Concerning Various Kinds of Troops, and Especially Mercenaries
The two components essential to a strong state
Good laws
Good armies
three type of armies
- indicated by the presence of a good army itself
prince's own troops
mercenary troops
auxiliary troops
Machiavelli sees them as useless as dangerous:
- mercanaries are, quote, "disunited, undisciplined, ambitious, and faithless" since their only motivation is monetary
- therefore, it is prefered the prince commanded his own army
Historically, dependence on mercenary troops were disastrous for Italy: the mercenaries were more ineterested in gaining prestige than accomplishing military objectives, leading to many staged battles.
Chapter 13 (XIII): Concerning Auxiliary, Mixed, and Native Forces
continuing from chapter 12
Machiavelli states armies borrowed from another powerful state (auxiliaries) are as useless
- the prince is in a no-win situation: if the auxiliaries fail, he has no defense. if the auxiliaries win, the victory is owed to some other ruler
- the auxiliaries are also loyal to another ruler, becoming a more dangerous threat than mercenaries
Chapter 14 (XIV): A Prince’s Concern in Military Matters
According to Machiavelli, the best way to acquire a state is for a prince to be a master in the art of war
A prince without the understanding of warfare who then leads the army is like an unarmed man trying to lead the armed.
1) no reason for the armed man to obey the unarmed man
2) no reason for unarmed man to trust armed man
3) the armed man will feel contempt for the unarmed man, thus making cooperation impossible
Analysis — Chapters XII–XIV (12-14)
- Machiavelli's famous statement: “the presence of sound military forces indicates the presence of sound laws”
- he argues successful warcraft is the foundation for establishing statemanship
- advocated for internal troops due to his assertion for self-reliance.
- to him, war does not only comprise of military force: there should be diplomatic, political, geographical and historical rigor involved.
to learn how to govern, machiavelli states that “the prince ought to read history, and reflect upon the deeds of outstanding men, […] examine the causes of their victories and defeats, and thereby learn to emulate the former and avoid the latter."
Chapte 15 (XV): Concerning Things for Which Men, and Princes Especially, Are Praised or Censured
In this chapter, Machiavelli analyses the correct behaviour of the Prince.
A prince should aim to achieve utmost practical benefit instead of concerning himself to be virtuous
Having characteristics deemed as "bad" is sometimes necessary to safeguard the state -- the prince's prime goal.
- Machiavelli rejects the idealized notions of leaders portrayed by other philosophers.
Chapter 16 (XVI): Liberality and Parsimony
Liberality, or generosity, is an admired quality, but too much of it will ruin a state
The prince's liberality will then lead to people despising him as he will have to raise excessive taxes to maintain the state
Parsimony, or ungenerosity, might be frowned upon, but with frugality, the prince will have enough wealth to defend against an aggression without having to tax the subjects
Chapter 17 (XVII): Concerning Cruelty: Whether It Is Better to Be Loved Than to Be Feared, or the Reverse
Analysis — Chapters (15-17) XV–XVII
- if a prince is too compassionate, the subjects will take the freedom to do as their pleasing, engaging in crime
- if a prince is too cruel, the subjects will start growing contempt for him
A prince should ideally be loved and feared, but this is challenging to attain.
Therefore, Machiavelli deems it is better to be feared than to be loved as men are “ungrateful, fickle, dissembling, anxious to flee danger, and covetous of gain". A bond of love is therefore easy to break, but fear of punishment stays effective.
However, with the army, there is nothing called too much cruelty -- as the prince has to keep them loyal, even inhuman cruelty is justified.
- in this, Machiavelli criticizes classical philosopher's propositions of virtue, like Aristotelian doctrine of a "good life"
- he believes philosophy must be judged by practicality, and to Machiavelli, virtue is simply one that garners praise from others.
[some more things you should take note but are too tired to do so]
- a prince with the sole aim of safeguarding his country will have to exercise certain cruelty.
"It is better to be feared than to be loved, if one cannot be both."
contemporary society: death penalty, Singapore
Chapter 18 (XVIII): In What Way Princes Should Keep Their Word
- though acknowledging that a prince honoring his word is praised, those who succeeded are when they are cunning.
- due to men, by nature being deceitful, there is no promise that a prince can rely on
- therefore, a prince must become the master of deception: acting like a lion to recognize traps and acting like a fox to frighten off wolves.
- however, a prince cannot outwardly show his cunningness. he should present himself as compassionate and trustworthy so that their subjects believes him to be virtuous. even if he needs to employ evil to achieve his goal, he will still be regarded as virtuous
Chapter 19 (XIX): The Need to Avoid Contempt and Hatred
- a prince can be criticized for the lack of virtue, but he must not let it breed hatred
- by doing so, he can defend himself against internal insurrection -- conspirators will not kill a ruler if people will be outraged by the ruler's death.
- for unpopular laws that might stir hatred, the prince can delegate it to others to administer it.
Analysis — Chapters XVIII–XIX
- the prince's aim is not to be loved, but merely not to be hated
e.g. think of political image today
"The implication is that manliness is a prerequisite for ruling. Machiavelli notes that Alexander was thought to be ruled by his mother, and therefore deemed effeminate, a perception that led to his downfall."
Chapter 20 (XX): Whether Fortresses and Many Other Expedients That Princes Commonly Employ Are Useful or Not
Defending against internal insurrection
- do not disarm subjects: arming helps foster loyalty among people and defend the prince
- but for annexations, disarm the new subjects to prevent an uprising, and have his own soldiers occupy the state
- prince should not put all his trust in a fortress and neglect the attitudes of the people as well
Chapter 21 (XXI): What a Prince Must Do to Be Esteemed
How to be esteemed? Two ways:
Nobility
great enterprises
- through grand display of reward and punishment
- gain reputation of having outstanding ability
- by allying with a strong ally, the prince avoids being neutral and getting treated as a weak coward or a doubtful friend
- if the ally wins, there is an obligation. if the ally loses, there is still protection given to the prince.
- should avoid allying with a power greater than his own, but sometimes it is unavoidable
- TAXING: should not unduly tax and allow prosperous commerce (touches on capitalism)
Chapter 22 (XXII): Concerning the Prince's Ministers
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF INTELLECT MEN POSSESS
1) ability to understand thnigs independantly
2) appreciating ability of another's to understand things
3) the ability to do neither
- the prince should use this intellect to judge his ministers
- loyal ministers should be rewarded, disloyal ones punsished
Chapter 23 (XXIII): How to Avoid Flatterers
- A prince should only allow his closes wise advisors to speak with him and only when he wants advice.
- attributes femininity to loss of respect, and gives importance to harder virtues that are considered more manly.
Analysis — Chapters XX–XXIII
- a prince must avoid hatred and suppress opposition before it gains sufficient momentum
- Appearing virtuous is desirable but not necessary. Some good qualities like courage and decisiveness are better than generosity because of practical reasons
"Machiavelli’s view of politics is more meritocratic than aristocratic, as he suggests that hereditary princes have even more to prove than those who obtain power through intelligence and skill."
Chapter 24 XXIV: Why the Princes of Italy Have Lost Their States
- fled when they should have fought
- took too much comfort in prosperous times
- because of own incompetence
Chapter 25 XXV: Concerning the Influence of Fortune in Human Affairs, and the Manner in Which It Is to Be Resisted
- fortune only determines one half of actions -- free will still determines the other half.
- due to fortune, one man might fail and another succeed, even if they follow the same path.
Chapter 26 XXVI: An Exhortation to Free Italy from the Hands of the Barbarians
- if Lorenzo de' Medici learns from the great men named in The Prince, he might salvage Italy
- he must create a national army with good cavalry and infantry
Analysis — Chapters XXIV–XXVI
- seeks a balance between free will and determinism
hereditary: passes down power through the ruling family