Ethics - Absolutism and Relativism
absolutism : moral principles are objectively true and universally binding
relativism
divine command theory : objective moral rules are true for no reason except that they are commanded by God
euthyphro dilemma
moral objectivism different as there is right and wrong but this can vary
Herodotus : Callatians eat dead father, Greeks burn dead furthers - both groups shocked by others moral conventions - custom is most relevant factor in morality
Weaknesses
John Ladd
Diversity thesis : "ethical relativism is doctrine that moral and rightness of action varies from society to society an that there are no universal moral standard binding on men at all times" - fact
Dependency thesis : "whether or not it is right for an individual to act in a certain way depends on or is relative to the society to which he belongs" - normative statement (principles derive validity from cultural acceptance)
Strengths
promotes tolerance - reduces ethnocentrism
offers clear guidance - look at society
held by esteemed scholars eg. John Ladd
BUT appeal to authority - informal fallacy
explains moral disagreements - different exposure
SISSELA BOK : universal minimal morality : moral values at heart of action transcend cultural values despite different actions
Wilfred Thesiger : 'The Life of my choice' : shows how castration could not be seen as morally wrong - same principles as sport for us
both Callatians and Greeks value is to respect dead
DONALD DAVIDSON : common concepts : tree analogy - living in different ecological areas where trees are different, but ability to talk about trees shows we have some sense of knowledge/comparable idea of tree
ability to engage in meaningful conversation shows we are able to at least share certain concepts even if in different forms
BUT : mental framework for understanding does not equate to have ethical beliefs that align at a deep level
Diversity thesis does not lead to dependency thesis - IRIS MURDOCH : different cultural moral frameworks are equally equidistant from a common good (just because moral values vary from place to place - does not make them right)
How to define a culture - could be defined by geography, education, generation - can people inhabit multiple cultural spheres - if morality changeable what is the point
RORTY : micro-cultures - how small can a culture be - a small space where moral values are mutually held - reduce validity?
Moral improvement nonsensical - if morals based on culture no revolt as culture should grant customs moral worth
Moral reformer problem - Martin Luther King wrong as going against culturally accepted morals?
Meta-ethics : moral statements seem to have more cognitive value than cultural relativism allows
Agent relativism : truth value of moral judgments is defined by agents moral convictions
strengths
clear moral guidance
pragmatic - does not mean it is true
often clear moral guides within cultural relativism - still feel certain actions are right/wrong
cross-cultural judgments can be made
gives authority to human rights legislations
criticisms
Absolute laws come into conflict - NORMAN GEISLER distinguishes different types of absolutism
unqualified absolutism : all moral conflicts only apparent, there are moral absolutes with no exceptions that come into conflict - sin always avoidable
conflicting absolutism : real moral conflicts happen, humans may be put into situation where they will be guilty no matter what
graded absolutism : higher and lower moral laws, unavoidable moral conflicts that dont necessarily make you guilty, some laws must be obeyed over others
historical developments
too harsh - does not take circumstance into account
COUNTER : just because they seem harsh des not mean they dont exist
promotes conformism over individual moral responsibility
no way of knowing correct moral principles
Moderate objectivism - absolute moral principles - some can be overridden in certain situations to preserve a more important moral principle
less harsh - allows for circumstantial dependence - still providing universal set of moral standard while promoting individual thinking
BUT : no clear way to see which tules more important, what is the moral code
Meta-ethics
Emotivism : A.J.Ayer : moral statements have no meaning, just expressions of emotion - verifications principle
Hume : Is-Ought gap : you cannot derive moral values (ought) from non-moral premises (is)
weaknesses
strengths
clear reward/punishment for breaking code
scripture allows us to discover rules
BUT : propositional revelation criticisms - can the bible be seen as a source of authority
no moral agency
difficult to interpret God'commands
conflicting commands clash with God's eternal nature
"Does God command the good because it is good"
"is it good because it is commanded by God"
PROBLEMS
God subject to independent moral law - not willed by him and equally necessary
God's free will comprised as cannot command contrary to moral law - looses ombipotence
God's existence no longer required to account for morality
PROBLEMS
rules seemingly arbritary - why obey them
God could go against logic and command evil to be good
Only following laws in order to go to Heaven/Hell instead of inherent morality - seems tyrannical
to say God is morally good is only saying he follows his own commands
Solutions
Bite the bullet approach - WILLIAM of OCKHAM - should accept whatever God wills is morally correct - if he willled evil we would have to do it
ROBERT ADAMS : this is only a logical possibility - God would not do this as he is omnibenevolent
ROBERT ADAMS: modified divine command theory - morality is a feature of God's nature so he is not subject to it - commands are moral obligations - loving God so we can assume his laws are ethical
DESARTES - things are good because God excercised his will to make them so - God is efficient cause so he could decide to make anything true or false
LEIBNIZ: God is entirely perfect - his actions must also be perfect - against Descartes' idea that things are only good as God makes them so - instead as God is supremely perfect his actions will follow this
ethical behaviour is obedience to God's commands that are objective, universal and absolute definitions of the good
"the law of the Lord is perfect" - Samuel 22:31
AQUINAS: God gives us a telos - morality is achieving that telos - do that through conscience and NL - Good = Like God's nature
SWINBURNE: morals are part of logic - like making a 4 sided triangle, God cannot break logic - God self-limits to logic for greater good (kenosis) - could not logically make morality change