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CW Section 4: Cooperation and Confrontation 1963 - 72 - Coggle Diagram
CW Section 4: Cooperation and Confrontation 1963 - 72
NIXON'S POLICIES IN VIETNAM
SINO-SOVIET SPLIT / TRIANGLE POLICY
Origins of split 1956: Khrushchev's secret speech, attitude towards Poland + Hungary.
1st explanation of breakdown = ideological differences over correct interpretation of Marxism-Leninism.
2nd = power struggle between the two states.
3rd = the individuals (notably Mao, also Stalin + Khrushchev).
4th = evolving process caused by unequal terms of treaty drawn up in 1950. (Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance).
1949:
CCP victory should have been seen as major triumph for communism. Soviets now had significant ally against capitalism.
BUT the Sino-soviet relationship already somewhat strained by 1949 as Stalin was suspicious of Chinese communists. Their revolutionary strategy of relying on the peasantry (rather than the workers) to overthrowing the ruling elites was a t odds with the soviet model of revolution.
Also, the sense of independence aroused fears in Stalin that the Cap might not be easy to control once in power.
1950:
Negotiations for Sino-Soviet treaty began Jan 1950.
Mao wanted military security against US attack , economic assistance to build socialism.
-Outcome of treaty: Soviets promised economic trade, technological and military support and advisers (although much less than what the Chinese wanted).
The Chinese acknowledged Soviet leadership of the global communists HOWEVER, the soviets insisted on territorial concessions in Manchuria and Xinjiang.
-The unequal nature of the treaty + Stalin's tactics in driving for territorial concessions brought mistrust into the relationship.
1958-60:
Soviets opposed to Great Leap Forward.
Feb 1956:
CPSU 20th congress where Khrushchev delivered a 4 hour condemnation of Stalin, the Chinese reacted negatively.
-They argued that Khrushchev betrayed the faith and was in danger of falling to revisionism. They believed Khrushchevs attacks on Stalin were directed at them too.
-They defended Stalin and in doing so opposed all of Khrushchevs ideological innovations.
Led to 3rd disagreement over Khrushchev's desire to promote peaceful coexistence with the capitalist powers as China favoured a more militant, confrontational approach to international relations and condemned Khrushchev from wanting peaceful existence.
1960
:
By 1960, the 2 communist states were on differing paths.
1963
:
In 1963, it was revealed that China had further apart between 1960 and 1969: nuclear · been engaging in secret (albeit unsuccessful) diplo weapons and the competition for socialist support. macy to lure, Hungary and East Germany
Great Leap Forward 1958
WHAT WAS IT?:
Mao's attempt to modernise China's economy.
Mao wanted to target industry + agriculture. He announced a second 5 year plan to last
1958-63
(AKA The Great Leap Forward).
China was reformed into a series of communes to allow this. People in communes gave up ownership of tools, animals etc so everything was owned by the commune. People now worked for the commune NOT themselves.
Propaganda was everywhere.
Party officials would order the impossible and commune leaders, who knew what their commune was capable of achieving could be charged with being a "bourgeois reactionary" if he complained and he would be imprisoned.
Quickly produced farm machinery fell apart when used, many workers were injured after working long hours and falling asleep at their jobs.
1959 was a very poor growing year due to weather. Including huge floods and droughts therefore starvation followed.
-By 1959, it was already obvious the Great Leap Forward was a failure and even Mao admitted this.
HOW DID IT CONTRIBUTE TO THE SINO-SOVIET SPLIT?:
During 1950s: Chinese had carried out a land distribution programme coupled with industrialisation under state ownership.
The Soviets provided some technical assistance to China during this but it was grudging and insufficient.
Mao perceived that the Soviet economy was being allowed to fall behind, uprisings took place in Europe and Khrushchev was seeking peace with imperialism. These policies showed Mao that he had to be prepared to do the Great Leap Forward alone.
The G.L.F was a communist policy closer to Stalin than Khrushchev, including forming a personality cult around Mao.
Mao angered USSR by criticising Khrushchev's economic policies throughout the plan whilst still calling for more Soviet Aid.
-Khrushchev saw China's domestic politics as evidence of an increasingly confrontational and unpredictable china.
Soviet economic advisers and technicians, arrived in 1956 to help the PRC industrialise, but advised Mao that the G.L.F was impractical and harmful to the Chinese economy. July 1960: these experts were recalled.
Mao stepped down as chairman of the PRC in 1959, though he did retain his position as chairman of the CCP.
Cuban Missile Crisis- Chinese Criticism
The apparent failure of the Great Leap Forward, coming at the same time as the withdrawal of Soviet economic and technological experts from China, drove a wedge between Mao Zedong and practical-minded leaders such as Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.
Cuba provided an ideal arena for sparring between Moscow and Beijing. In a developing country long under the thumb of the United States, the Castro brothers’ revolution accorded perfectly with Mao’s vision of conflict between the capitalist and socialist blocs. But China lacked the military and economic power to support the Cuban Revolution; only the Soviets had the means to protect the Castro regime.
Moscow and Beijing nevertheless jockeyed for support in Havana. Indeed, the Soviets may have committed to delivering missiles less out of fear of a U.S. invasion than of a Cuban shift towards the PRC.
-
As the Cuban Missile Crisis unfolded, a Chinese critique emerged of Soviet weakness and perfidy. The eventual withdrawal of missiles, seemingly as part of a deal between the United States and the Soviet Union, demonstrated the Maoist point perfectly; the Soviet Union was willing to compromise the interests of revolution in the developing world in order to avoid conflict with the United States. (REVISIONISM).
Sino-Indian border skirmishes + 1962 Sino-Indian War
CAUSES:
Disputes over a Himalayan border was the main cause.
There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan uprising when India had granted asylum to the Dalai Lama.
India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along the Chinese-Indian border, and along the eastern portion of a Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959.
EVENT:
Unable to reach political accommodation on disputed territory along the 3,225-kilometre-long Himalayan border, the Chinese launched simultaneous offensives across the McMahon Line on 20 October 1962,
coinciding with the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theatres.
It is noteworthy that the build-up and offensive from China occurred concurrently with the 13-day Cuban Missile Crisis (16–28 October 1962) that saw both the United States and the Soviet Union confronting each other, and India did not receive assistance from either of these world powers until the Cuban Missile Crisis was resolved.
CONSEQUENCES:
After, the USSR offered support + aid to India.
The war ended when China declared a ceasefire on 20 November 1962, and simultaneously announced its withdrawal to its claimed 'line of actual control'.
China get the bomb 1964
When Moscow withdrew its advisers 1960, the Chinese pressed ahead with developing a new bomb. The motivation was clear (to break the US-Soviet monopoly on nuclear weapons, provide security for China + raise its international prestige.
RAPID PROGRESS: By OCT 1964 China detonated their 1st atomic bomb.
1st nuclear missile launched Oct 1966 and first H bomb detonated June 1967.
The soviets now faced a socialist nuclear rival.
The Chinese were not increasingly ideologically independent of the USSR but were also able to show military + strategic independence from Moscow.
Cultural Revolution: Impact on Sino-Soviet relations
WHAT WAS IT?:
A decade-long period of political and social chaos caused by Mao Zedong’s bid to use the Chinese masses to reassert his control over the Communist party.
Mao’s decision to launch the “revolution” in May 1966 is now widely interpreted as an attempt to destroy his enemies by unleashing the people on the party and urging them to purify its ranks.
The Cultural Revolution crippled the economy, ruined millions of lives and thrust China into 10 years of turmoil, bloodshed, hunger and stagnation.
Gangs of students and Red Guards attacked people wearing “bourgeois clothes” on the street and intellectuals and party officials were murdered or driven to suicide.
After violence had run its course, the country’s rulers conceded it had been a catastrophe that had brought nothing but “grave disorder, damage and regression”.
Had caused “the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the party, the country, and the people since the founding of the People’s Republic” in 1949.
MAO'S MOTIVE BEHIND IT:
Saw it as a way of reinvigorating the communist revolution by strengthening ideology and weeding out opponents.
Wanting to crush those in authority who were leaning towards capitalism.
-Was an attempt to reassert control over the party by obliterating enemies.
WHEN + HOW?:
Began May 1966.
-Document called "May 16 notification" released which warned that the [arty had been infiltrated by revisionists who were plotting to create a "dictatorship of the bourgeoisie".
Chinese students set up red guard divisions in classrooms and campuses around the country.
Mao’s allies urged Red Guards to destroy the “four olds” - old ideas, old customs, old habits and old culture.
Everywhere closed due to places being ransacked and destroyed.
After the initial explosion of student-led “red terror”, the chaos spread rapidly. Workers joined the fray and China was plunged into what historians describe as a state of virtual civil war, with rival factions battling it out in cities across the country.
By late 1968 Mao realised his revolution had spiralled out of control. In a bid to rein in the violence he issued instructions to send millions of urban youth down to the countryside for “re-education”.
He also ordered the army to restore order, effectively transforming China into a military dictatorship, which lasted until about 1971. As the army fought to bring the situation under control, the death toll soared.
between 500,000-2 million lost their lives as a result of this revolution.
MAOs LITTLE RED BOOK: the cultural revolutions official handbook. Was a collection of Mao's quotes.
IMPACT ON SINO-SOVIET RELATIONS:
China accused the USSR of revisionism (developing more capitalist outlook).
The revolution was Mao's attempt to reassert his authority following the failure of The Great Leap Forward and also to remove opponents from within the Party. He accused these opponents of being revisionist.
Ultimately, the cultural revolution served to isolate China more from the USSR.
Chinese attitude towards Prague Spring
Ussuri Border Dispute
Sino-US relations begin to improve 1969-72
Nixon Visits China 1972
Normalisation Of US-Sino relations 1978-79
COOPERATION 1963-69
Attitudes of Khrushchev + JFK after Cuban Missile Crisis:
While Khrushchev was interested in the concept of peaceful coexistence, he had to show a strong anti-Western position to maintain dominance over China and Communist world.
After the Cuban Missile crisis – both were interested in engagement and discussions.
JFK's Attitude towards USSR:
-General Leon Johnson, the director of the National Security Council’s Net evaluation Subcommittee (top secret part of NSC which prepared annual reports to consider the impact that nuclear war would have) gave JFK a report in summer 1963.
Estimated that in the event of nuclear war in 1963 or 1964, the two counties would have a combined 93 million casualties.
The report acknowledged that the USSR were also aware of the consequences.
THEREFORE,
The outcome of development of nuclear weapons was the idea of
Mutually Assured destruction (MAD).
MAD stated that it was beneficial for the USA and USSR to have nuclear equality.
This in itself was a deterrent and a reason to maintain a large stockpile of these weapons.
MAD was based on the assumption that all nuclear powers were rational actors therefore, JFK had to work hard to ensure there was no spread of nuclear weapons to potentially volatile countries.
1963: only the USA, USSR, UK + France were nuclear powers and JFK wanted this to remain the case.
Therefore, JFK began negotiations with other nuclear power with hope of preventing their further use.
-However, JFK's assassination in 1963 delayed talks, but they did continue until the end of the war.
Khrushchev's attitudes after the Cuban Missile Crisis:
Presented his withdrawal from Cuba as a triumph.
After Cuba, Khrushchev was open to a US-Soviet relationship based on mutual restraint, rather than Brinkmanship.
Conciliation is also important considering the Sino-Soviet split.
Tito in Yugoslavia was reconciled though.
Ideas of limiting the number of countries with nuclear weapons and manners by which nuclear weapons could be tested were areas where Khrushchev and JFK agreed.
-HOWEVER, like JFK, Khrushchev couldn't see this through as he was ousted from power in Oct 1964.
Hot Line 1963:
Set up June 1963.
Aim was to avoid the kind of delays that had occurred in communication between Kennedy and Khrushchev during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Prior to this, government leaders had to wait for phone calls to go through a series of exchanges before the two could converse . Kennedy and Khrushchev could reach each over 24hrs a day, seven days a week, through a system only to be used in emergency situations.
HOW DID IT WORK?:
One leader would draft a message that would be encrypted and then transmitted.
Although it was not instantaneous, it was much faster than previous means of communication between the superpower leadership.
It symbolised a new spirit of cooperation but on a very limited scale.(perhaps moves toward Detente).
HOWEVER,
Neither Kennedy nor Khrushchev used the hot line; it was Johnson who first used it in 1967. (4 YRS AFTER CREATION).
Moscow Test Ban Treaty 1963:
The Moscow Test Ban Treaty was officially called the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water. It is also known as the Limited Test Ban Treaty and the Partial Test Ban Treaty.
Signed Aug 1963 by US + USSR.
Idea was initially proposed by the Soviets in the 1950s. The initial discussions were larger in scope, but the control of nuclear weapon tests was one issue on which both could agree upon.
HOWEVER SOME OPPOSITION:
In US + USSR in aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis as the public did not want their country to be seen as weak to the other superpower. BUT was countered by those who recognised the threat of nuclear war as a result of the CMC and supported government efforts to limit the use of any nuclear weapons.
August 1963: Agreement finally reached.
Kennedy’s speech at American University was critical in gaining US support and hosting the talks allowed Khrushchev to show that the USSR was bargaining from a position of strength.
above-ground, underwater and outer space nuclear testing was prohibited.
LIMITATIONS:
Agreement limited as it did not include underground tests. These were hard to detect and difficult to differ from earthquakes and the Us had withdrawn its insistence about onsite inspections in order to monitor underground tests.
France + China refused to sign the agreement and France continued to test its nuclear weapons in the south Pacific well into the 1990s and China continued until 1996.
DESPITE LIMITATIONS:
The treaty demonstrated that the signatories understood the dangers of nuclear technologies and were willing to limit their usage of nuclear weapons.
It was the first collective agreement to establish some limitations on the nuclear arms race
The treaty confirmed that Britain, the US and the USSR were committed to the principle of some form of easing of the tensions associated with the Cold War.
The idea that a nuclear war was a realistic possibility had been addressed and this was a way in which all parties hoped that the chance of such a war would be diminished.
The treaty was one step on the way to the development of further agreements. While most of the following agreements were bilateral between the Us and the USSR, there were other agreements that were signed by multiple countries to show an international commitment to limiting (and eventually ending) the possession of nuclear weapons.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, JULY 1968:
CONTEXT:
Despite accepting a test ban on nuclear weapons, the Kennedy administration continued to produce intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) and Submarine - Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) to strengthen their defence system.
HOWEVER, the USA overestimated the strength of the nuclear threat n 1963 and even though reports showed this, the US military had committed to the construction of these weapons and carried out their construction.
By the late 1960s, the lack of parity or equality between the US and Soviet nuclear strength ended, and the Soviets even gained supremacy in their defence system.
The Soviet Union developed the technology to intercept nuclear missiles and prevent them from reaching their target. These Anti-Ballistic Missiles (ABMs) represented a major shift in the effectiveness of nuclear missiles as a deterrent to nuclear weapons use. If one side could destroy the nuclear ability of the other, then
MAD was no longer effective.
Early 1967: McNamara persuaded LBJ to delay the development of an American ABM system prior to negotiations with the USSR over the expansion and deployment of their ABMs. The USSR was reluctant to include the ABM system in weapons negotiations, but when the USA developed Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles, otherwise known as MIRVs, the Soviets were brought to the bargaining table. The USSR's ABM systems were not designed to stop multiple warheads, so they
lost their advantage
.
OCT 1964: China successfully tested a nuclear bomb and thereby entered the elite club f nuclear powers, alongside France, Britain, the USA and the USSR.
AS A RESULT:
Non-Proliferation treaty was finalised July 1968.
-All who signed agreed that they would not 'transfer to any recipient nuclear weapons or other nuclear devices or control over such weapons nor would they assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear state to manufacture nuclear weapons’.
It allowed the signatories to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, meaning that nuclear energy could continue to be used as a source for fuel.
THEREFORE, the treaty established the principle that non-nuclear states would never be able to establish nuclear weapon arsenals by forming alliances with those states that had nuclear weapons. It was seen as an evolving treaty, and other countries were encouraged to sign the treaty.
The terms meant that nuclear powers were agreeing they would not share their technology, and non-nuclear states would not seek nuclear weapons technology.
Most countries in the UN became signatories between 1968 and 1970. For political reasons France and China did not sign until 1992, although they had already privately pledged to adhere to the terms of the treaty in 1968.
Cut Back in Materials for Nuclear Weapons:
After the signing of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, further discussions on arms limitations were limited.
Cut back in materials for Nuclear Weapons was mainly due to ECONOMIC reasons.
Other countries pressured the USSR and USA to decrease nuclear weapons – the target of an attack would not be the only victim, and a nuclear accident could have wide reaching impact.
Economically speaking – if both sides could agree to limit production it would be mutually beneficial.
The wars they were engaged in were primarily guerrilla wars and nuclear weapons were useless.
A relaxation in Cold War tensions (détente) would allow the USA and USSR to focus on domestic affairs as opposed to the expensive arms race.
HOWEVER,
August 1968 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia and Johnson’s decision not to seek re-election in November 1968 halted discussions.
The USSR was focused on its sphere of influence.
ALTHOUGH,
Nixon’s election in 1969 and the resolution of the Czechoslovakia crisis, the
STRATEGIST ARMS LIMITATIONS TALKS (SALT)
began.
For Nixon – this was an attempt to improve US international position (same time as Vietnamisation and improved Sino-US relations).
For Brezhnev (Khrushchev’s 1964 successor), it was an opportunity to focus on internal affairs.
SALT took 4 years to sign.
PRESSURES ON USSR
Crushing of Prague Spring:
PRAGUE SPRING:
Dubckec was not what the USSR wanted and quickly began to replace key officials with those who wanted reform, without consulting the USSR.
Among his reforms, Dubcek eliminated press censorship and, according to hard line communists across E. Europe such as Honnecker in E. Germany and Janos Kadar in Hungary, he therefore exposed E. Europe to the possibility of ‘democratic infection’
This coincided with growing student discontent in Poland.
Among his reforms, Dubcek eliminated press censorship and, according to hard line communists across E. Europe such as Honnecker in E. Germany and Janos Kadar in Hungary, he therefore exposed E. Europe to the possibility of ‘democratic infection’
-To do so the gov needed to allow:
-Basic freedoms of speech, press and movement (including travel to W. Europe).
-Formal recognition of the state of Israel.
-Basic freedoms of speech, press and movement (including travel to W. Europe).
-Increased rights of autonomy for politically repressed and underrepresented Slovak minorities.
To protect these reforms Dubcek assured Russia that Czechoslovakia would remain loyal to the Warsaw Pact.
Due to a lack of clear opposition to the Action Programme – reformers took things further.
-all press censorship was ended.
-Planned to open borders with the West.
Began discussions on a trade agreement with West Germany.
CRUSHING OF:
Hoping to intimidate Dubcek, the Warsaw Pact Countries conducted military exercises in Czechoslovakia in late June 1968.
Leaders of USSR, Bulgaria, E. Germany, Hungary and Poland met 14-15th July and expressed concerns at Czechoslovakia’s reforms.
On 20 August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia. Dubcek and three other leaders were arrested and sent to Moscow.
The Czechoslovakians did not fight the Russians. Instead, they stood in front of the tanks, and put flowers in the soldiers' hair.
SIGNIFICANCE:
The Warsaw Pact faced no international action - the loudest complaints came from within the Communist camp.
China and Romania protested in places.
NATO didn’t feel threatened.
However – clear that the USSR had violated the sovereignty and integrity of Czechoslovakia.
The invasion appeared to undermine any possibility that change could be achieved through party-led reform.
Brezhnev Doctrine 1968:
WHAT WAS IT?:
Brezhnev expanded upon the responsibility of communist states to intervene to protect the good of the whole communist community.
Brezhnev also defined what deviation from communism would lead to.
Despite the Brezhnev Doctrine, thousands of Czechoslovaks demonstrated on the streets of Prague in late 1968.
Was the subsequent justification of the invasion of Czechoslovakia.
-Justified through an appeal to ideology.
It stated that while socialist countries should be free to determine their path, “none of their decisions should damage either socialism in their country or the fundamental interests of other socialist countries.”
The Crisis in Czechoslovakia, 1968- up to Prague Spring:
Crisis in Czechoslovakia 1968:
Brezhnev believed economic progress was the key to Stability in the Eastern Bloc countries.
Material improvements often resulted in a decline in protest.
-Brezhnev saw a stable Europe as necessary for Soviet prosperity.
-From 1963: Czechoslovakia began to reconsider its relationship to the Communist Party.
From Russia’s perspective, Czechoslovakia had been a loyal satellite state and it supported the Communist Party officials until it appeared that the country might revolt against them.
Signs of revolt in Czechoslovakia before 1968:
Began mid 1960s.
Influential Czechoslovakian economist Professor Ota Sik, proposed reforms to the planned, command economy. These included:
-End to centrally planned economic targets for the whole country.
-Allowing individual enterprises to function
-A Communist Party that would be responsive to public opinion.
-Existence of consumer rights
-Workforce having more power, EG. Workers could replace factory managers.
HOWEVER,
The communist part wouldn't let this happen.
1966 Sik argued for political reform. His arguments were gaining support.
1966 Sik argued for political reform. His arguments were gaining support.
Czech leader Dubcek:
served as the First Secretary of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia.
-Committed communist.
On good terms with Brezhnev.
Aim was to create a genuinely popular form of communism.
wanted to get rid of most repressive aspects of communist rule, reform economy & allow more cultural freedom.
CONTEXT:
Removal of Khrushchev + the establishment of the Brezhnev regime:
Khrushchev was replaced due to the perceived failures of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Berlin Crisis.
-Additionally, his policies had failed to improve the Soviet Standard of living.
Between Jan – Sept 1964, Khrushchev was absent from the Kremlin for a total of 5 months. (During this time a group of party leaders, led by Brezhnev planned his removal).
October 1964 Khrushchev was summoned to a special meeting – he was criticised by other members of Soviet leadership.
Khrushchev accepted this and retired, citing poor health and age as the reasons.
PRESSURES ON THE USSR:
Despite attempts at revolution and reform in Poland, Hungary and E. Germany, the Khrushchev era was seen as allowing for differentiation within communism.
As long as countries remained loyal to the USSR, by staying in the Warsaw Pact and maintaining their status as a single party state, modifications in the nature of communism were allowed.
Mao criticised this.
This did normalise relations with Tito.
The Brezhnev era was viewed as a time of the Soviet reasserting itself as leader of communist world.
Initially back fired across E. Europe and between 1964-68 there were movements demanding changes in leadership and policies.
Continued economic deprivation and lack of consumer goods meant that these movements were among both the intellectual and working class.
Economic decline and political repression caused discontent within the USSR and across E. Europe. Most notably in Czechoslovakia.