Duke of Anjou- son of Henry II and Catherine De Medici, political advantages over french policy in Netherlands, foreign, 22 year age gap, Catholic

Duke of Alencon-Heir to HRE, potential ally against french agression in Scotland, foreign, council not agreed in favour

Robert Dudley- English, given title of Earl of Leicester in 1564, Son of Duke of Northumberland who executed in 1553, married Amy Robsart in 1550

Phillip II of Spain- 1559- had been married to Mary, Catholic, Spanish

Rule accepted as second best unmarrried- needed husband and heir to throne

Foreign suitors would aid diplomatic foreign relations but danger of England becoming satellite of husband's territories

If english suitor would disturb the balance of power with the nobility- also Liz Protestant

Issue of succession brought up 1563 and 1566 in Parliament as Liz contracted smallpox 1562, if died would have caused civil war

Refused to name successor- MQS- from 1563 Liz preferred policy not to marry

didn't mention doctrine as only sought to establish national and legal framwork for new church

left confusion and disappointed protestant reformers who hoped for vigorous theological debate leading to a statement of belief

shortage of properly trained clergy due to financial issues and religious confusion- liz forced to appoint protestant bishops due to loss of leading catholic bishops

new bishops compelled to accept poorly trained clerics- meant physical and spiritual life of church was approaching poverty

vital in determining attitude of english catholics and policies of european catholic powers e.g france and spain- expected he would excommunicate liz

england had just signed cateau cambresis with france, fear of catholic crusade led council to make early overtures to protestant german princes in hope of religious alliances

1560 latin edition of prayer book allowed requiem celebrations for the dead- catholic mass

royal injunctions 1559 allowed old vestments to be worn during services and communion table to stand where altar had been

most extreme catholic bishops removed-by summer 1559 all but 1 of mary's bishops had refused to take oath and removed- liz delayed consecration of new protestant bishops

Liz still hadn't produced protestant heir- no guarantee her religious settlement 1559 would last

fear of liz and councillors that legitimate catholic claimant might try and overthrow he with foreign and English support- MQS

9th nov Northum+Westmor soldiers assembled and 14th nov marched to Durham cathdral- tore down prot images and celebrated catholic mass

16th nov earl of sussex attempted to raise army against rebels- 14th dec barnard castle surrenders to the earls

16th dec liz's privy council assemble 15,000 soldiers to march north- reach river Tees and rebels outnumbered at 5,000 and fled

Charles neville, Earl of Westmoreland- norfolks bro in law- original conspirator

Thomas Percy Earl of Northumberland- rose support for restoring catholic- didn't want norfolk to marry mary

Thomas Howard duke of norfolk- lead- conspired to marry mary to secure her succession- when discovered fled and told others not to carry out rebellion- imprisoned

De Spes Spanish ambassador- wrote to Phil about optimism of liz being overthrown and catholic uprising

Duke of norfolk to marry MQS and Westmoreland+Northumberland raise army in North

northern earls strong catholics and arrival of mary in 1568 pushed them to rebellion

Northern earls were powerful but when liz came to throne limited their power by putting southern lords in charge of some of their land

19th dec Westmor and northum fled to Scotland- revolt collapsed

dec 1569-jan1570 liz ordered execution of 700 rebels- actual figure 450

Pope Pius V angered by outcome and issued papal bull excommunicating liz in 1570

Formally excluded from Catholic church and pope encouraged english catholics to overthrow Liz

Liz responded with Treason Act in 1571- offence to claim she was a heretic

northumberland captured and executed 1572- MQS kept in captivity

Ended religious toleration in the north by strengthening the council of the north

Pope didn't issue papl bull till after rebellion- too late to call on catholics to support rebellion and rid Liz

Phil didn't show support for MQS due to her connections with France

Earls turned back when heard about massive force being built up against them

Appeals made by Earls to Catholic nobility failed- support fro Lancashire and Cheshire not forthcoming

Gov officials contained the rebellion and held key towns of Pontefract, Berwick and York

No popular support to replace Liz with foreigner of restore authority of pope

Aug 1561 MQS arrived back in scotland from france july 1567 abdicated in favour of son James

problem for liz as had claim to throne and half french and catholic so could jeopardise political independence and Protestantism

Treaty of Cateau Cambresis 1559 Eng+france signed confiming loss of Calai- French dominated Scot where Mary of Guise ruled as regent for MQS- Scot Prots rebelled and forced her to flee in 1559

Treaty of Edinburgh 1559 MQS husband became King of Frace she gave up claim to English throne- but never formally approved this treaty

1565 married Lord Darnley- strenghtened Stuart claim to Eng throne

1566 Rizzio affair- Darnley plotted to murder Mary's secretary Rizzio- stabbed to death and Mary roughly handled- child survived, James VI of Scotland

1560 Francis II died 1561 MQS back to Scotland- main concern assert claim to Eng succession

Mary forced to abdicate in favour of son and regency established- imprisoned at Loch Level and escaped 1568- army defeated at Langside May 1568 and fled to England

York Conference- council asked socttish lords to attend to determine Mary's involvement in Darnley's murder- claimed had evidence in letters- verdict jan 1569- Moray returned to scot with english support and loan of £5000

1572 council persuaded liz to summon parliament to raise money- real reason to secure execution of MQS and norfolk

Parliament brought 2 bills- 1 for Mary's execution and 2 barring her from succession. 2 acts passed prohibiting anyone bringing papal bulls to the country and treason to deny liz as queen

Followed Liz excommunication- planned to replace her with MQS- plan discovered by Cecil

Decree said any claimant to throne who had foreknowledge of Liz's assassination was to be executed from succession

Liz delayed signing Mary's death warrant twice- agreed to Norflok's execution to placate the commons

Throckmorton tortured and executed and De Mendoza expelled- Councillors established Bond of Association- in events of Liz's assassination none of those associated would benefit from it

1585 Act ordering expulsion of Catholic priests- treason to become priest and death penalty fro those who helped priests

Throckmorton imtermediary between Mary and De Mendoza Spanish ambassador

Treason extended to those such as MQS who were causes of plots

plans for french catholics forces backed by spain and papal money to invade england. liberate mary and start catholic uprising

Liz had reservations about first bill and wording changed so James Mary's son wouldn't suffer by virtue of his claim to Eng throne

Liz appalled by scots rebelling against rightful monarch and in 1570-71 and 80s Liz urged Scots to restore Mary to sovereignty but scottish regents put obstacles in way of marys return

Privy council unanimously demanded Norfolk's rebellion following northern rebellion

1570 liz sent forces to scot to subdue mary's supporters after Moray was murdered

Supported by Earl of Leicester and Throckmorton- sept 1569 Leicester confessed to liz and norfolk fled from court- initiative passed to Northum and Westmor who were defeated by gov force

Marry Norfolk to MQS, overthrow Liz and cecil, restore Catholic

Delegations from both houses visited queen to demand mary's execution

Liz ordered Babington and conspirators to be hanged, drawn and quartered

Council pished Liz to sign death warrant- Mary executed 8th Feb 1587

Spain and Scotland pleaded for Mary's life- liz hesitant to kill mary

Privy council persuaded liz that mary must be trialled- Fotheringhay castle Oct 1586 found Mary guilty

she appealed that quiet murder may be easier to arrange but secretary william davison sealed warrant - liz banished cecil and ordered imprisonment of Davison

Letter allegedly dictated by mary endorsing babington's plot to murder Liz, intercepted by Walsingham's agents

In response to outrage from Phil and Henry III of France, liz claimed wasn't responsible as Davison sent death warranty without her authority

John Knox- led Prot reformation in Scot, had worked on Ed 6 prayer book, spent time in exile in Mary's reign- didn't like female rulers

Liz informed he had planned to kill her in a private meeting or by ambushing her

Calls for MQS to be brought to justice- no proof of her involvement tho

Bad harvests, high mortality rates, high taxation and cut in wages

Debt of "£227,000 over £100,000 owed to Antwerp with an interest rate of 14%

When Liz died 1603 only in debt of £350,000, only £123,000 more than 1558, onky £3,000 a year

No formal declaration but Phil and Liz considered Spain and Eng at war, Liz pursued policy based on this

Phil stronger than ever- army in Nether making considerable inroads against Dutch rebels and acquisition of Portugal added to his navy, Treaty of Joinville left him free to turn against England without fearing french intervention

1586-90 harvest failures and dutch naval blockade cause famine in Spanish army- after 1589 Spanish troops diverted to France

1590s Dutch Captain General Nassau helped by small english force of 8000 and eng money score victories over spain

1586 English army stop Parma's advances by preventing him capturing Doesburg and Flushing. Leicester recalled to Eng

1594 norther part of Nether secured under Dutch control while south under Spain's control, acting as buffer against French expansion

1585 Treaty of Nonsuch signed, Liz agrees to send 7000 soldiers to rebels in Nethers. Leicester leads expedition and title Governor General, implying aimed to replace Spanish sovereignty. Leicester wastes supplies and quarrels with officers

1589 Drake leads naval counter attack- arguments over resources and objectives. Liz wants him to destroy remnants of Armada. Drake wants to help Don Antonio of Portugal regain throne form Phil. Drake disobeys orders and Essex attempts ineffective attack on lisbon- financial and psychological failure

1596 expedition launched against Spain. 17 naval ships and 47 warships led by Essex, Howard and Raleigh, sack Cadix and capture Spanish treasure ship, cost Phil 12 million ducats

1588 130 spanish ships with 17,000 men sail up channel to rendevous with spanish army under Parma in Nether. Armada met by eng navy, numerically superior but has quicker ships and ,longer range guns. Sails in tight formation, only loses 2 ships and anchors of Calais. Eng use fire ships to scatter fleet and defeat them at Battle of Gravelines escape northwards but grief on coasts of Scot and Ireland- less than half return to spain

1596-98Subsequent spanish armadas are scattered by storms

1587 Drake sails into Cadiz harbour and sinks 30 Spanish vessels, delaying prep for Armada

Parma successful in recovering land in Nether for phil, Liz convinced action needed to be taken

Liz agreed to send 7,000 troops under Leicester to maintain rebellion. Public defiance of Phil. Also sent fleet under Drake to raid Spanish ships across the Caribbean

In return Dutch hand over Flushing nad Brill and liz became Protector of the Nethernlands. Flushing key passage way to Antwerp, had nearly been taken by French

rmada met by eng navy, numerically superior but has quicker ships and ,longer range guns.

Sails in tight formation, only loses 2 ships and anchors of Calais.

1588 130 spanish ships with 17,000 men sail up channel to rendevous with spanish army under Parma in Nether.

Eng use fire ships to scatter fleet and defeat them at Battle of Gravelines escape northwards but grief on coasts of Scot and Ireland- less than half return to spain

200 smaller cannon- could fire over long distance- quick to load

2000 large cannons- fired heavy cannon balles, only short distance and slow to load

67 ships returned to spain of original 130- some blamed Duke Medina Sidonia's inexperience or weather

Military power of Spain and tensions with Eng had been growing since 1585

english sailors were often too sidetracked by the acquisition of plunder

navy could protect england from invasion but couldn't win the war

Drake and commanders annoyed at failure to capture and make profit out of Spanish ships, criticised Liz's decision to defend the channel rather than invade spain

Success wasn't followed up and war with spain continued for another 10 years

East India Company set up `1600 to trade with Asia but had less investement comapred with Dutch East india company- difficult to compete with short term. East land company set up 1579 to trade with Baltic but had little success

Cloth trade with Nethers declined but still important. Trade developed with North German port of Emden and to Amsterdam

1564 Hawkins secured investments from prominent members at court

third voyage supported by Liz but was blockaded in San Juan de Ulua- antagonised relations between liz and phil

Wider range of foreign luxury goods were imported- suggetsing more affordable to wider range of population

Bad harvests still occurred which upset the trend of marked improved living standard for all during this period

No. of trading companies set to widen Eng trading interest- Muscovy company incorporated into Eng trade in 1555 but failed long term to compete with Dutch

Historians argue trade was buoyant- can be seen in the increase in shipbuilding which took place

internal trade value exceeded foreign trade. Coal shipping grew from Tyne to Thames to meet growing demands from London- some exported across North sea and to France

argued trade not as successful as initially argued. histroians saw liz to be desperately searchin new markets to offset long term decline in cloth trade

attempts to establish new trading markets e.g Russia but remained economically marginal

All trading companies established relatively small. All joint-stock companies owned by shareholders which later essential to future capitalist development

English wool markets moved from south to northern Nether. Change seen by increase in trade with Ottoman Empire

Hawkins made 3 voyages from 1562 to acquire slaves in Africa, transported and sold in South America

Raleigh's ideas to colonise America gained support from Walsingham. 1585 Raleigh received patent from Queen to colonise Virginia

Colonising america came from Gilbert- entrepreneur and explorer. Encouraged by Hakluyt in 1584, linked to half brother Raleigh- Raleigh presented these ideas to Queen

2 expeditions landed Roanoake Island which became North Carolina.attempts to colonise proved unsuccessful due to poor organisation, ill luck, reluctance of Queen to give the settlers priority during times of war with Armada

extension of trade of North America and attempt to establish colony in Virginia received little importance, but later significant achievements

Hawkins began with Guinea as starting point of move into the Americas. Guinea centre of African trade- Hawkins invented the English slave trade here

Permanent english colonisation had to wait until reign of James I

Some old established towns experienced decline such as Stamford+Winchester. Urban decay associated with boroughs that had been dependent on cloth industry as this business now moved to rural areas

Towns that did well either had broad range of manufacturing industry or unincorporated towns which industry was able to develop without hindrance from regulation

Argued growth of London as port and industrial centre had detrimental effect on other towns/cities. However others like Newcastle Upon Tyne benefited from London's economic needs

1596-97 subsistence crisis- conditions worst in north with starvation in remote rural areas and urban centre of newcastle. Reported 25 homeless were buried due to starvation in newcastle

Society farmers benefited from rise in agricultural prices. Inventories taken after death of person confirmed living standard of farmers improved

Land became more in hands of gentry- rise in building of great houses and country houses. 'Building boom'

by 1596 real wages collapsed to less than half the level they had been 9 years previously

Real wages fell at same time of harvest failure. 9/44poor impact 1594-97 catastrophic experiences for some where there had been 4 successive bad harvests

Landowners benefitted from economic trends of Eliazabethan eng- income from land rose

from taxation records wealthiest part of country was south east followed by Norfolk, Suffolk and inner west country. Poorest areas in North and West Midlands

Conditions of old established towns e.g York+Norwich continued to improve. New settlement e/g Manchester+Plymouth developed

No land under tillage could be converted to pasture- act against depopulation

Gov dislike of enclosure based on fear of social unrest and number of tenants available for military service might decline

All land that been under tillage for 4 years since 1528 must remain under tillage

Landmark in economic legislation- recognised right to work and focused on young single full time labourers. All able unemployed persons obliged to seek work in farming or domestic services

Employers to provide employees with training and annual contracts to be issued. Act didn't live up to expectations as didn't take into account increasing level of unemployment caused by inflation

Fixed max but not min wage rates. Standard wage rate to be assessed by JPs and kept in line with prices

Instead by fixing max wage it held down wages at time when no. of people looking for waged employment rose. Indirectly contributed to growth of poverty

Series of good harvests enabled gov to concentrate on expanding the food supply

Included clause which raised price limit on amount of grain that could be exported to 10 shillings a quarter

During good years farmers allowed to export surplus corn- indicated corn sufficient supply for growing population

Followed series of good harvests between 1587 and 1593 when surplus of grain

Price limit of corn at 20 shilling a quarter. Export of corn permitted when price fell below this

1563 Act for maintaining tillage prevent conversion of tilled land to pasture repealed

4 disastrous harvests between 1594 and 1597 led to revolts against enclosure and high prices in Oxfordshire in 1596

Number of acts passed against enclosure and depopulation during Tudor period shows difficulty of gov in balancing need for profits that could be made from cloth industry with demands of increasing population

Parliament of 1598 panicked into these measures by spate of enclosures between 1591 and 1597. Some areas like Staffordshire in 1592-94 enclosures caused real distress

Acts designed to prevent further conversion of tillage into pasture

new markets was long term enterprise- eng declining commitment to european based trade allowed ports like Hull, Exeter and Bristol to regain some initiative that had been lost to London

Merchant Adventurers transferred cloth trade from Antwerp to Emden, Hamburg, Stade and Middleburg

Pilchard exported to Portugal, Barley+malt exported to nethers, wine+wood imported from France, Coal+tin+herring+cod imported from Scandinavia, Iron+wool+wine imported from Spain

cloth trade between London and Antwerp 75% of all exports and brought in custom duties between £35,000 and 50,000 a year

1553 Willougby and Chancellor crossed Arctic ocean and travelled overland to Moscow. from 1558 overland trading expeditions under Jenkinson travelled through Russia to Asia- trade was worth £25,000 per year

Eastland company estbalished 1579 to import goods, naval supplies from Baltic. Cloth 75% of eng exports to Baltic

1573 onwards english ships began importing luxuries like silk, spices and oils from Mediterranean

Growing domestic demand for luxury goods sugar and spices, generated high profits, drove men to find North-West passage to Asia. 1574 Frobishe reached Baffin island and 1587 Davis explored west coast of Greenland

1583 Newberry and Fitch journeyed overland to India and established East India company. despite new trade routes 75% imports still came from nethers, HRE and Spain. English maritme more concerned with illegal trade in New world than legal trade with East

Humphrey Gilbert- Solider and courtier tried to find new trade route to China. Devoted Prot who spent time at sea raiding spanish ships

Martin Frobisher- 3 voyages to New world looking for north west passage

Francis Drake- explorer and adventurer- first englishman to sail round world

Richard Grenville- made prep for voyage of discovery to South Pacific hoping ot locate northwest passage from Eng to China but expedition never made. Drake adopted plan for his circumnavigation voyage instead. Commanded fleet carried 100 eng colonists to Roanoake island

Walter Raleigh- tried to establish colony in America- called it Virginia after Eng's virgin queen

John Hawkins- explored coasts of Africa-supplied enslaved african sto spanish and portugese to work on sugar and tobacco plantations. 3rd expedition 1567 attacked by at San Juan de Ulua

Ottomans had high taxes on goods passing through their territory

Annoyed europeans as turks had ability to bloc off trade- wanted to find alt route

Difficulties made worse by Ottoman expansion- muslim hostile to christian europe- conquered E.Europe- held power in the Med

ships had advantage of carrying more than camels, so hoped more goods could be imported for less money

Brought from far eastover land on back of camels and could take 2/3 years for goods to reach italian trading centres Genoa+Venice

trade links beyind europe as high demand for luxuries e.g spices, incense, silks- high price as transporting took long and expensive

Astrolabe meant ship's position could be plotted accurately- magnetic compass developed

smaller ships called cravels and carracks used for exploration and invention of rudder gave crew more control when steering ship

new inventions prompted growth in exploration- printing press meant maps and geographical literature more readily available

Triangular lateen ship (copied from Arab ships) meant ships could sail whichever way they wished, whatever the wind direction

belief in intellectual circles world was round not flat- suggested ships sail north around russia or south round africa or west across Atlantic to reach far east

Muscovy company set up 1555, eastland company in 1579 traded timber, tar and rope with Scandinavia+baltic, Levant company 1581 goods in Med and East India company 1600

After Frobisher's failed attempts to discover northwest passage to China, Lancaster in 1590s sailed round cape of good hope in africa to reach India and Spice islands

Hawkin's 3 slave voyages- made great deal of money from gold, silver and animal skins too

privateers were licensed by Liz’s gov to robs spanish ships/ports privateer’s ships were privately owned, financed by merchants and liz

Drake in 1572 captured £40,000 wort of spanish silver from ships travelling from Mexico+Peru, captured spanish port Nombre de Dios in Panama

Spain hostile to eng interests- didn't allow other countries to trade with their colonies in new world without a license- not granted to eng sailors

Drake sailed in 1577 circumnavigated globe- reutned with £400,000 treasre from Spanish- made £10,000 with the rest of investors and queen, more than her entire income of the year

Raleigh royal patent to establish colony like spain and portugal- colonisation seen as way of solving poverty crisis at home

both raleigh's attempts failed as first settlers faced food shortages, second disappeared without a trace- 4 years after Liz's death first successful english colony in virginia at jamestown

long term- foundation of position as global superpower, rich, development of navy and established colonies that grew into british empire

short term increased hostility with spain- brought great wealth to merchants and nobles- helped build Liz's image

Gov in ireland relied on Lord Deputy Lieutenant enforcing eng policies and maintaining relations with irish nobles and chief

tension over choice of president and Liz withdrew support, fearing more financial commitment

Sussex attempts by establishing plantation+ increasing eng forces in Ireland

Tried again by Sidney but liz refused to send further funds and replaced him by 1567

Success as paved way for successful colonisation of Desmond's land in Munster and Connaught

Failure as Grey recalled by Liz as his methods alienated traditional goverment's supporters in the Pale

1580 Grey sent with army of 6500 to put down Fitzgerald rebellion

Yeoman- independent farmers who owned their land- largely rural society

Husbandmen- farmers with small land by tenure- some freeholders- mostly cottager or day labourers

Gentry- largely landowners- knights and esquires wealth from 10-200 per annum- mixed with peerage

Burgesses/merchants- top of social ladder of townspeople- most wealth in town and key in town gov- towns grew in liz's reign

Skilled craftsmen- masons, tailors, butchers+carpenters- statue of artificiers craftsmen had to do 7 year apprenticeship and rates of pay

Peerage- 57 at start and 55 by end major landowners- aristocracy who had right to sit in house of lords

Casual labourers- bottom- usually migrants from countryside- in hard economic times main source of vagrants and beggars

Norwich, Ipswich and Cambridge 3 east anglican towns which introduced laws dealing with the poor

Long lists of Acts- 1563, 1572, 1576, 1579 and 1601- lasted until 1834

illness, plague and influenza epidemic that affected end of Mary's reign

Enclosure and engrossing of land- only during crisis of 1590s issues of husbandry and tillage major economic problem

harvest failure created famine- 1590s worst decade and poor harvests in 1556 and 1586 meant famine existed in 1550-57, 1586-87 and 1596-97

Rise of 43% between 1550-1600 in population pressured food resources. 3.2 million to 4.1 million

end of warfare put large numbers of soldier and sailors in positions of poverty

those unable to work due to age, handicap or infirm- needed support from community

those capable of work- encouraged or forced to work to prevent them from being vagrants or beggars

If people refused to make contributions, could be taken to court or imprisoned

effectiveness of local measures that persuaded gov to follow suit and require local authorities to appoint a special collector of alms

Max wages fixed and set by JPs- offence to pay more than prescribed

7 year apprenticeship compulsory in all urban crafts- to maintain high standards of craftsmanship

all men aged 12-60 obliged to find employment and not move from it without permission

trying to create employment and tie man to one trade showed gov idea that unemployment meant vagrancy, and social unrest

compulsory contributions to poor relief- overseers of poor appointed by parish to help organised poor relief

punishment for vagrancy- whipping and ear bored for first offence- then criminal charge

some classes of people excluded from punishment- deserving poor

fear of vagrant class as allowed whipping, boring through ear and death penalty for 3rd offence

severe penalties against vagrants- JPs keep register of poor in parish and raise poor rate to provide shelter for elderly and sick

help find work for people or provide poor relief if not possible financed by contribution from those in work

House of corrections set up to punish those who refuse work- beggars set to work

JPs required to buy raw materials to provide work for those who were able- keep them profitably employed

able bodied poor directed by JPs to find work- those refusing sent to house of correction

Gov encouraged local communities to lay in corn stocks to provide for the poor when harvests failed

Each county had to have at least 1 house of correction to which persistent beggars could be sent

compulsory poor rate and setting up pauper apprenticeships to train boys until 24 and girls until 21

Impotent poor to be provided for in almshouses and poorhouses

Rising population and war with spain led to high tax and disrupted trade- plus series of bad harvests pushed price of corn up by 80%

finance raised through compulsory poor rate paid by inhabitants of each parish

Based on earlier acts of 70s and experiments to cope with poverty carried out by towns such as Norwich

4 overseers appointed to supervise admin of poor relief- were to secure apprenticeship for children, employment/materials for adults and build hospitals for old and sick