DD pg 3: "Breasts and a vagina were all one needed to certify one’s femininity."

DD pg 2: "...women’s participation in sports threatened to turn them into manly creatures. In 1, Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the modern Olympics (from which women were originally banned), argued that ‘‘women’s sports are all against the law of nature.’’ ... Olympic officials rushed to certify the femininity of the women they let through the door, because the very act of competing seemed to imply that they could not be true women."

DD pg 3: "Partly because such complaints mounted, the IOC decided to make use of the modern ‘‘scientific’’ chromosome test. The problem, though, is that this test, and the more sophisticated polymerase chain reaction to de- tect small regions of DNA associated with testes development that the IOC uses today, cannot do the work the IOC wants it to do."

DD pg 3: "In  the sexologists John Money and Anke Ehrhardt popularized the idea that sex and gender are separate categories. Sex, they argued, refers to physical attributes and is anatomically and physiologi- cally determined. Gender they saw as a psychological transformation of the self—the internal conviction that one is either male or female (gender identity) and the behavioral expressions of that conviction."

DD pg 4: "Our bodies are too complex to provide clear-cut answers about sexual difference. The more we look for a simple physical basis for ‘‘sex,’’ the more it becomes clear that ‘‘sex’’ is not a pure physical category. What bodily signals and functions we define as male or female come already entangled in our ideas about gender."

DD pg 4-5: "Could the IOC use muscle strength as some measure of sex? In some cases. But the strengths of men and women, especially highly trained athletes, overlap. (Remember that three women beat Hermann Ratjen’s high jump). And although Maria Patin ̃o fit a commonsense definition of femininity in terms of looks and strength, she also had testes and a Y chromosome."

DD pg 5: "They focus primarily on reproductive abilities (in the case of a potential girl) or penis size (in the case of a prospective boy). If a child is born with two X chromosomes, oviducts, ova- ries, and a uterus on the inside, but a penis and scrotum on the outside, for instance, is the child a boy or a girl? Most doctors declare the child a girl, despite the penis, because of her potential to give birth, and intervene using surgery and hormones to carry out the decision."

DD pg 5: "Choosing which criteria to use in determining sex, and choosing to make the determination at all, are social decisions for which scientists can offer no absolute guidelines."

DD pg 6: "Feminist theorists write persuasively and often imaginatively about the processes by which culture molds and effectively creates the body."

DD pg 2: "...IOC instituted ‘‘scientific’’ sex testing in response to rumors that some Eastern European competitors were trying to win glory for the Communist cause by cheating—having men masquerade as women to gain unfair advantage. The only known case of a man infiltrating women’s competition occurred back in 1 when Hermann Ratjen, a member of the Nazi Youth, entered the women’s high-jump competition as ‘‘Dora.’’ His maleness didn’t translate into much of an advantage: he made it to the finals, but came in fourth, behind three women."

DD pg 8: "But imposing a gender norm is socially, not scientifically, driven. The lack of research into the normal distri- butions of genital anatomy, as well as many surgeons’ lack of interest in using such data when they do exist (discussed in chapters  and ), clearly illustrate this claim.