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The Brezhnev era 1972-1985 - Coggle Diagram
The Brezhnev era 1972-1985
The USA and SE Asia
Paris Peace Talks 1968 - 73
Began May 1968
Talks soon stalled over whether or not the USA would commit itself to stopping N. Vietnam.
Johnson was concerned that the North was not fully committed to negotiations and that it would use a lull in the bombing to prepare for a further offensive in the South.
By Oct 1968 – the S. Vietnamese were fiercely in opposition to the whole concepts of negotiations if the NLF / Vietcong were represented.
March 1968, Hanoi’s military forces were on the defensive after Tet – The North would not commit to any action or decision that may have appeared weak such as de-escalation.
US wanted N vietnam to withdraw from South and Saigon free of communists. N vietnam demanded US withdrew from South
Johnson had remained committed to bombing and he warned of a restoration of the war if N. Vietnam remained uncooperative.
Nixon saw it as important to include China in negotiations to achieve 'peace with honour'
Terms agreed October 1972
Ceasefire January 1973
Each side would keep the areas they controlled at the time of ceasefire
within 60 days US to withdraw forces and POWs exchanged
Commission set up for introduction of free elections in South- Thieu furious at entire agreement as South weren't allowed in discussions- suggested terms but rejected by North
Northern Victory (1973-75)
27th January 1973- Paris peace agreement ratified
US forces left Vietnam by March 1973- only small air force and American diplomatic mission remained in Saigon
Northern guerrilla tactics intensified following US withdrawal
Nixon failed to keep promise of reacting strongly if north attacked and to provide $75 billion of reconstruction aid to Thieu over 5 years
November 1973 War Powers Act by Congress limited President's legal authority to deploy US troops for more than 60 days without declaration of war or congressional approval
21st April 1975 Thieu resigned and fled
30th April 1975 South Vietnam surrendered
Vietnam's communists achieved a unified communist Vietnam- Peace with honour not achieved as no democratic S Vietnam
North escalated forces in 1974 when they realised the US wouldn't intervene
Cambodian Civil War / Khmer Rouge
US dropped 430,000 tons of bomb on Cambodia- only had population of 7.5 million
Khmer Rouge took over capital Phnom Penh 17th April 1975 and nation in 1975
Khmer Rouge only 40,000 at this time but succeeded by isolating Phnom Penh from the rest of the country then attacking the capital
Started their revolution cleansing Cambodia's existing society- cities emptied and forced to countryside to work as farmers- 1 million killed during the revolution and civil war caused 700,000 cambodian death
Killing field burial site of Khmer Rouge regime 1975-1979 from their policies, disease and starvation caused 1.7-2.5 million deaths out of 8 million
25th Dec 1978 Vietnamese with Soviet military aid invaded Cambodia with Phnom Penh captured Jan 1979- Khmer rouge ended and leadership fled- pro Vietnam Cambodian Samrin installed as leader
Right wing military coup toppled head of state Prince Sihanouk in 1970 the Khmer Rouge formed a political coalition with him and increased support
Impact of Vietnam War (
One section of a whole gen of young men were traumatised by their experiences - leading to suicide, divorce, drug addiction and alcoholism
Over 58,000 Americans died - the fourth highest death rate of all American wars- Vietnam death toll was 4,648,528
Cost US roughly $167 billion which led to internal inflation-
US was defeated and humiliated in the eyes of the world
Communists failed to turn their victory into achievements for peacetime - farmers preferred to sell rice on the black market then hand it over to gov officials
SEATO lost relevance and was disbanded in 1976
Vietnam emerged as strong and successful - invaded Cambodia and set up its own puppet gov there in 1978 known as the People’s Republic of Kampuchea
Mixed race children of US soldiers were outcasts and turned to begging or prostitution
Supporters of the old regime in the south were persecuted or brain washed in concentration camps
Congress passed the War Powers Act (1973) to gain more influence over future deployment of US military forces & prevented Presidents from being able to act without the consent of Congress
Detente
causes/motives
USSR motives
current arms parity- USSR greater degree of parity in nuke weapons allowing it to contemplate arms limitations agreements from a position of strength- would prevent US forging ahead in new tech as USSR feared it couldn't keep up
Eastern Europe- wanted to stabilise their hold over EE- wanted recognition from West and give it legitimacy after imposing communism on the region after 1945 - Romania becoming more independent- Czechoslovakia crisis of 1968 and strikes in Polish city of Gdansk 1970 signs needed more of a hold over EE
Sino- Soviet split- if conflict were to occur with China, the USSR wanted to ensure US wouldn't get involved and that Western Europe was stable
Reduce arms expenditure- Soviet Politburo faced economic problems and needed to divert resources away from the military sector of the economy to deal with this. Soviet population had failed to improve living standards and with continuation of arms race, gov found it difficult to transfer production capacity in industry to consumer goods
Access to Western technology and grain supplies- competing with US economy but Soviet success in areas that were outdated. Their production of steel, cement, oil and pig iron exceeded US by end of 70s but lacked in post industrial society e.g microchips and computers. Eighth 5 year plan 1966-70 tried to address these weaknesses in car industry by making deals with Fiat and Renault to import tech to USSR
30 out of 100 million worked in military industrial sector. Money to support communist allies $1 billion to Vietnam a year and 4 to Cuba. 3/4 of currency earned by SU went abroad. Agriculture inefficient USSR imported $15 billion worth of grain in 1970s
US motives
Vietnam- American experience in Vietnam that changed US public opinion. Failure of the US to secure victory in Vietnam led to a reevaluation of America' power. Had caused high inflation, large budget deficit and decline in support for foreign intervention in wider world
Current arms parity- Method of adapting to a world where its power seemed to be weaker. Interests could be pursued by negotiation without reducing influence internationally and also addressing serious domestic issues
Western Europe
1966 De Gaulle French President withdrawn France from NATO
Detente would offer the US an opportunity to uphold its interest without the need for military intervention that might not succeed
Role of Nixon and Kissinger- established credentials as anti communists and this allowed them to carry a large degree of American right wing support with them. Trades and arms agreements presented as methods of restraining the USSR
Reducing military spending- reduce the influence of the powerful military complex. Plans for social reform in US had been undermined by lack of resources due to military spending. Urban riots that broke out in 1968 provided evidence that social issues need to be tackled with urgency.
6% inflation 1970 and unemployment of more than 5%- Public debt worsened by Vietnam War led Nixon to end Bretton Woods system, impact would be trade would be less stable
causes
Cuban Missile crisis had highlighted underlying tensions but also helped to accelerate the moves towards reducing tension- detente
Was encouraged by international tension and domestic considerations of the 2 superpowers
Fear of war- Missile crisis had shown the danger of confrontation resulting in nuclear war
By 1969 USSR had matched the capability of the US for mutually assured destruction- posed threat to economic well being of both
Moscow Summit May 1972
set out principles for American-Soviet relations 12 principles agreed; 3 most fundamental were
1st no alternative to conducting mutual realtions on the basis of peaceful coexistence. Committed to developing normal relations based on soverignity, equality, non interference in internal affairs and mutual advantage
SALT and basic principles recognised parity between both and foundation for SU
3rd acceptance of special responsibility so would do everything in their power to prevent conflicts or situations that would increase international tensions' and promote conditions in which all countries will live in peace and security
These had no legal status depended on both powers abiding by guidelines. For US they represented a set of aspirations rather than solid basis whereas SU considered them as fundamental importance
2nd determination to avoid situations developing that could damage commitment to peaceful coexistence- agreement to avoid military confrontations and prevent nuclear war
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)
Interim agreement on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive arms
450 strategic bombed for US and 140 for USSR
Agreement to last 5 years- made no limitation on newly developing tech, e.g MIRVS
656 Submarine launched Ballistic missiles for US and 740 for USSR
No defined limits on cruise missile systems (any guided missile- air, land, sea that has a land based target)
Only interim and due to expire in 1977
Politically beneficial to both Nixon and Brezhnev
1054 ICBM for US and 1618 for USSR
Complimented ABM treaty and established a freeze on strategic missiles
Significance of SALT I
US accepted nuclear parity with USSR- both sides had something to gain from detente
Balance of power had been acknowledged and this necessitated the construction of a new confrontational relationship
Opened the way for an era of negotiation rather than confrontation
US- Soviet trade increased- mostly US grain as USSR reliant on this
Political achievement that made Detente possible
Agreements finalised at the Moscow Summit May 1972
SALT I: Anti Ballistic Missile treaty 26th May 1972
Made the race to develop offensive nuclear weapons less critical
ABM treaty shows both US and USSR recognised the power of the other
Restricted value of ABMS- no further competition to develop ABM defence technology
One could be set up to defend a capital city while the other was to protect ICBM sites
Limited ABMS- neither US or USSR more than 100 missiles
Limitations of SALT I
Treaty on offensive weapons- thin on substance
Each superpower had retained enough nuclear weapons to destroy the other several times over
Vladivostok November 1974
Events
Oct Kissinger visit Moscow. Gerald Ford had succeeded Nixon after watergate
Kissinger talked with Brezhnev about number of strategic missile launchers and MIRVs
Agreement at summit on the framework for 10 year plan, preliminary move towards future SALT II treaty.
Soviet agreed to equal levels of ICBM launchers and SLBM launchers,
Congress passed resolutions supporting Vladivostok agreement by Feb 1975 despite internal opposition due to high levels of weapons being retained and gains made by SU. Became clear transition from Vladivostok to SALT II wouldn’t be smooth
When Kissinger returned from Vladivostok, faced opposition from Secretary of Defence, Chairman of joint chiefs of staff and others. New proposals forced onto Kissinger and backed by FOrd
Brezhnev rejected the new approach and clear further SALT agreement wouldn’t be achieved by 1976.
Jan 1977 Jimmy Carter replaced Ford as President. Carter administration began by trying to establish a more ambitious arms reduction programme for SALT II.
March 1977, Carter considering reduced levels of heavy ICBMS, new limits on testing and a ban on new types of ICBMs.
New proposals unveiled to Soviets 28th March 1977:
Reducing strategic systems from the 2400 level agreed at Vladivostok to between 1800 and 2000
Reducing number of launchers for missiles with MIRVs from 1320 to 1100- Reduce modern ICBMs to 150 and number of launchers for ICBMs with MIRVs to 550
Ban on development, testing and deployment of new ICBMs- Ban on all types of cruise missiles with a range above 2500 kilometres
Only heavy bombers could have air launched cruise missiles with a range of 600-2500 kilometres
Brezhnev regarded Vladivostok as binding and so he rejected new proposals due to disproportionate reduction in soviet forces compared to US,
increasing feeling from USSR that Carter admin was moving away from detente and cooperation on nuclear weapons that it necessitated
Ostpolitik and the development of European detente
WILLY BRANDT- appointed Chancellor of West Germany Oct 1969- saw stabilisation of European relations as essential to the interests of the continent
By reducing tension and establishing links between E+W Brandt thought Cold division would be eroded- developed Eastern Policy Ostpolitik
1968 showed instability on both sides for East SU invasion of Czechoslovakia and West France student demonstrations led to strike that threatened De Gaulle and French system of gov
Ostpolitik opened channels between E+W- encouraged other countries to establish links across the divide e.g French government's policy of establishing relations with Romania
Brandt’s objectives were to recognise East Germany and the territorial changes that had occurred at the end of WW2,
Abandoned the Hallstein doctrine of 1955 as that didn't recognise the existence of East Germany- HUGE BARRIER TO DETENTE
Non Agression Pact August 1970 between USSR and West Germany. Warsaw Treaty December 1970 reocgnised Oder Neisse border of Poland- ethnic germans within Poland from 1945 allowed to emigrate back to W.Germany
The Basic Treaty 21st December 1972- 2 germanies signed an agreement formally recognising each other. By 1973 both FRG and GDR members of UN
Detente pt 2
The Helsinki Accords
The final meeting of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe took place in Helsinki in 1975- discussions began in 1972
35 states participated – each could veto.
Discussions lasted 2 years and were signed between 30 July and 1 August 1975.
Agreements divided into baskts
Basket 2 Co-operation in scientific fields
Addressed trade and industrial cooperation, transportation, science, technology, tourism, environment and issues concerning migrant labour
Basket 3- Co-operation in other fields
Focused on cultural and educational exchange and wider issue of contacts among people
Sought to encourage freer movement of people, information and ideas
Basket 1 Security in Europe
10 Principles applied to inter state relations
e.g respect for sovereignty and equality among states
Peaceful settlement of disputes
Cooperation among states
non intervention in the internal affairs of other states
American position
Not fully committed to accepting the political status quo on Eastern Europe
Feared strong W Europe as its support for military programmes within NATO would be reduced
Recognition that east west confrontation in europe was relaxing
Soviet position
wanted to expand Ostpolitik
Decrease barriers between states in order to increase economic activity and trade
Further the process of east west detente
The arms race continued
USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 profoundly impacted East – West détente.
Mid 1978, President Carter was faced with USSR refusal to end the deployment of SS-20 missiles in Europe, or to reduce stocks of heavy missiles – seen as a threat to NATO defence strategy.
December 1979 – Cater convinced NATO allies to increase military expenditure by 3%.
July 1974 Kissinger convinced if a SALT II agreement not reached by 77 when SALT I was due to expire there would increase of nuke tech and weapons
US domestic criticism of Detente- rise of Neo Conservatives
Often associated with Reagan- Became vocal critics of Detente during Ford and Carter’s presidencies, impacting foreign policy decisions.
Memory of Vietnam had started to fade a ltitle and US regaining confidence
Wanted to increase arms race and deal with USSR more forcefully.
Increasing Soviet influence in the Third World, Angola, Mozambique and Ethiopia, was used by neo-conservatives as evidence of Soviet ambitions to spread communism.
Success of Detente
A sharp spike in Soviet-American trade, which grew from $220 million in 1971 to $2.8 billion in 1978, served as one of the more concrete by-products of detente.
Brandt’s policy of Ostpolitik abandoned the Hallstein Doctrine, which had been designed to snub East Germany by refusing to recognise its existence as a separate state
establish links between East and West in Europe as a method of reducing barriers
Treaties with Poland and SU accepted the Oder-Neisse Line as the border between Germany and Poland and recognise the border between East and West Germany
After the dangers of war and nuclear destruction in late 50s and 60s, Detente reduced tension. Superpower relations had been stabilised and risks minimised.
Agreement by the US, USSR, France and Britain in 1971 gave a legal basis to access routes from West Germany to West Berlin and provided security for the Western half of the city
Failures/things that undermined Detente 1969-79
Carter increased supplies of arms to anti-communist groups and governments in the developing world, such as in El Salvador and Nicaragua, to prevent the spread of Soviet influence
Carter reached agreement with Brezhnev on the SALT II Treaty in June 1979. Opposition to SALT II was mounting in the US Senate and increasingly unlikely that the agreement would be ratified before the invasion of Afghanistan
In November 1979 Islamic militants occupied the US embassy in Tehran and held the US diplomats and their families hostage. The hostages were not released until January 1981
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan Dec 1979 was last straw, Carter condemned the action and withdrew the SALT II Treaty from the Senate.
Discussions within the Politburo revealed growing unease with the criticism directed at the USSR over the Helsinki accords
ressure was also exerted by the Soviet military to resume increases in arms in order to support Soviet policy in the developing world and to strengthen its position against the USA
Developments in the Americas
Impact of Cuban intervention in Angola
Cuba sent more troops overseas during the Cold War than all other countries, including the USSR, except for the USA.
MPLA led by Netu and Lara- left wing- 60s had received training and arms from Cuba and Moscow
FNLA national front for liberation of Angola- Roberto leader- anti communist- links with Zaire who supplied outdated US arms
UNITA national union for total independence of Angola- led by Savimbi
Angolan civil war 1975-2002
US supported FNLA and UNITA
Cuba support MPLA and to keep control of Luanda- by 1988 55,000 cuban troops
New York Accords DEC 1988- Cuban and South African forces withdrew from Angola- South West Africa gained its independence from South Africa
The Cubans had high hopes that after their victory in Angola, in cooperation with the USSR, they could remove all of southern Africa from the influence of the U.S. and China.
In Angola, they put up dozens of training camps for Namibian (SWAPO), Rhodesian (ZAPU) and South African (ANC) guerrillas.
National ceremony 7 Dec 1988: all Cubans killed in Africa were buried in cemeteries across the island total of 2289 killed
Impact of Cuban intervention in Ethiopia
Somalia invaded Ogaden July 1977 after Britain had given the Somalian land of Ogaden to Ethiopia
US accused Moscow of using Cuba to extend its power in Africa- any chance of rapproachment between US and Cuba ended
By Feb 1978 15,000 Cuban soldiers in Ethiopia
Ethiopia received military supplies worth $1 billion, 15,000 soldiers and airmen by Castro in support
Casto visited Ethiopia and Somalia to reduce tension March 1977 but felt the Somali government abandoned socialist ideology- leading him to send troops to Ethiopia in November
Arrival of Soviet arms in Jan 1977 meant the end of an era more than 2 decades during which the US was the main arms supplier to Ethiopia
International Security and Development Act of 1985 prohibited all U.S. economic assistance to Ethiopia with the exception of humanitarian disaster and emergency relief
In 1974 Ethiopian emperor overthrown by Mariam- who established Leninist Marxist dictatorship and appealed for Soviet support
Impact of Cuban intervention in Chile
CIA managing covert action that would lead to a coup preventing Allende but failed and he was democratically elected
KGB targeted money towards Allende when he requested it- was $400,000 with $50,000 directly to Allende
n 1970, the socialist Salvador Allende was elected president of Chile
After the election- KGB director Andropov obtained permission for additional money and other resources from the Communist party of the USSR to ensure Allende victory in Congress
US influenced world bank to not lend money and withdrew economic aid- led to inflation spiralling, industry declining, stagnated farming and rise in unemployment
September 71 General Pinochet plotted military coup- Allende killed, civil rights violate, socialist reforms reversed and Chile suffered under a dictator for 25 years
Impact of American intervention in Grenada
nearly 1000 Americans in Grenada- protesters clashed with new government and Reagan ordered 2000 troops to Grenada
The United States invasion of Grenada began at dawn on 25 October 1983. The U.S. and a coalition of six Caribbean nations invaded Grenada. named Operation Urgent Fury
13th March 1979 Marxist New Jewel Movement NJM launched a bloodless coup removing Gairy- establishing close ties with Cuba, Nicaragua and communist bloc countries
By end of fighting US and Jamaican troops nearly 7600- 20 of these troops were killed and 60 of Grenadian and Cuban troops
Independence was granted on 7 February 1974 from Federation of the West Indies under the leadership of Eric Gairy- first PM
Coard's government collapsed- US prevented a communist takeover and restored consitutional gov
in 1984 grenada conducted free democratic elections and remains democratic now
Impact of American intervention in Nicaragua
In June 1979, the Sandinista National Liberation seized power which ended the Somoza dynasty and established a revolutionary government.
The US made illegal arms sales with Iran with the intention of using profits to purchase arms for the Contras.
Not only did the support of the Contras conflict with numerous of the Reagan Administration’s other objectives, but the Contras were incredibly unpopular internationally.
The resulting fallout led to the Iran-Contra Affair
In the 1980’s, America’s support of the Contras became controversial due to drug smuggling and war crimes.
Congress therefore stopped the USA sending money to the Contras with the Boland Amendment (82-84).
However, Reagan regarded the Sandinistas as communists and in March 1981 the USA began to support the Contras through providing funds, equipment and training.
The Iran-Contra Affair, 1985-1987- Reagan sold weapons to Iran and gave the money to the Contras
Carter recognised the Sandinista government and provided assistance with the aim of ensuring democracy and preventing the government turning towards support from Moscow.
Impact of American intervention in El Salvador
Project was called 'nation building' entailed changes to its authoritarian culture, political practices, economic, social+ military structures
foundation of their success was death squad killings- UN commission condemned US complicity in these atrocities committed by Salvadoran military
During the 1980s US military assistance was nearly $5 billion
Kissinger Commission report Jan 1984- argued Cuba and SU were behind the crisis which posed threat to US security interests
US assistance increased after Reagan's inauguration jan 1981
Stated US couldn't allow human rights abuse to stand in the way of its support to El Salvador
DEC 1980 4 american churchwomen raped and killed by El Salvador's national guard- Carter cut off aid for 6 weeks
US succeeded for a decade in denying the guerrillas a victory
1979 group of moderate officers ousted the dictator Romero- they formed the Revolutionary Government Junta JRG- a joint civilian military dictatorship