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11T4 - Biotechnology and Cloning - Coggle Diagram
11T4 - Biotechnology and Cloning
Food production
Yeast
Yeast is a single celled fungus that can carry out both aerobic and anaeroic respiration
Yeast uses anaerobic respiration to make bread rise
Glucose (C6H12O6) -> Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
The carbon dioxide bubbles are what causes the bread to rise
Bacteria
Lactobacillus is used in the production of yoghurt
Milk contains sugar called lactose, which lactobacillus can break down to form lactic acid
This acid lowers the pH of the milk, which denatures proteins to give the yoghurt texture
Industrial fermenter
Fermenters are containers that grow bacteria and fungi in large amounts
Aseptic
conditions are required to ensure that no other microorganism grows and contaminates the containers
Nutrients
are needed for the microorganisms to use in respiration
Optimum temperature and pH
are needed in order for enzymes to work at the high rate but not denatured
Agitation
by stirring paddles is required to ensure that the nutrients, oxygen, temperature, pH and microorganisms are distributed evenly
Genetic modification
Restriction enzymes
- Enzymes which are able to cut DNA at a specific site, leaving 'sticky ends' - short sections of exposed, unpaired bases
Ligase enzymes
- Enzymes that are used to join pieces of DNA together.
Viruses and plasmids -
Plasmids
are circles of DNA found inside bacterial cells - a bacterial plasmid is cut by the same restriction enzyme leaving it with corresponding sticky ends -
Genetic modification is the insertion of a gene (MP1) from one organism to another organism (MP2). This is the same thing as genetic engineering and usually involves making transgenic organisms - organisms that contain DNA (MP1) from a different species (MP2).
The process of human insulin production
The human insulin gene is removed using a
restriction enzyme
The bacterial
plasmid
is cut open using the same
restriction enzyme
Restriction enzymes leave
'sticky ends'
where one of the two DNA strands is longer than the other
Using the same restriction enzyme to cut both the human DNA and bacterial plasmid results in complementary
sticky ends
that join by base paring.
A different enzyme is used to join the insulin gene and
bacterial plasmid
The
bacterial plasmid
containing the insulin gene is placed into a bacterial cell
The bacterial cell is placed in a
fermenter
to allow reproduction under perfect conditions (warmth, moisture and oxygen)
The insulin is than extracted and purified
The pure insulin produced can be used to treat diabetes
Genetically modifies plants
GM plants are engineered to be resistant to insects and herbicides this will result in increases yields as less crops will die. This will mean that less chemicals such as pesticides will need to be used which is better for the environment
Some crops have been genetically modified to produce additional vitamins and improved nutritional value.
Some crops have been genetically modified to be drought resistant to grow better in very dry conditions. This can also improve crop yields
Transgenic
is the transfer of genetic material from one species to a different one
Cloning
Micropropagation
Cells are scraped form the parent plant. These are known as explants
The surface of the explants are sterilised using disinfectant followed by a rinse with sterile water
The sterilised explants are transferred to a sterile petri dish containing sterile nutrient agar
The growth medium encourages the explant cells to grow and divide into small masses of cells known as callus
Each callus is transferred into a fresh growth medium that contains a range of plant growth hormones. The presence of these hormones causes the callus to develop roots, stems and leaves forming a plantlet
Plantlets can be transferred to individual pots and develop into plants
The cloning of plants has many important commercial uses as it allows a variety of plants with desirable characteristics to be produced
Cloning mammals
The nucleus is removed from an unferilised egg call
The nucleus is removed from an adult body cell and places in the enucleated egg cell
Through the stimulation of an electric shock, the egg cell begins to divide to form an embryo
The embryo is implanted into the bomb of a female
The offspring is born as a clone of the adult body cell
Stem cells in medicine
Advantages
Can be used to replace damaged cells, such as in type one diabetes, multiple sclerosis and paralysis caused by spinal chord injuries
Bone marrow transplants for adult stem cells can be used to treat blood cell cancers such as leukaemia
Can grow whole organs for transplants
No rejection, if it is made from the patients own cells
Can allow for the testing of millions of potential drugs without animal testing
Disadvantages
Ethical issues of destroying unused embryos
No grantee in haw successful these therapies will be and if there will be any long term effects
Mutations could occur un cultured stem cells
Difficult to find suitble stem cell donors