Socialization and the underclass - effective socialization decreases the risk of offending, it involves internalizing moral values of right and wrong. RR argue nuclear family is the best socializing agency. Murray argues that crime of the underclass is rising because of inadequate socialization.

Rational choice theory - assumes that everyone has the luxury of choice and free will. Clarke argues that the choice to commit crime is calculated on if the reward outweighs the risks.

Biological differences - reject structural factors. Crime is a product of biological differences. Biological differences make more people predisposed to commit crime than others e.g personality traits Wilson and Hernstein

overemphasizes control of disorder rather than tackling the causes of neighborhood decline such as lack of investment.

they seek to make crime look less attractive, focus on control/containment and punishment rather than eliminating the underlying cause and using rehabilitation

crime prevention should therefore increase costs of crime to the offender. E.G target hardening - the greater use of prison and ensures punishment follows to maximize deterrent effect.

Zero-tolerance - prevent crime by tackling any sign of deterioration e.g vandalism and it will be dealt with immediately. Wilson + Kellig

gives police free rein to discriminate against minorities, youth and the homeless.

preoccupied with petty street crime and ignores corporate crime which is more costly and harmful

Zero tolerance and target hardening just lead to displacement of crime to other areas.