Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Explanations Part One A03 - Coggle Diagram
Explanations Part One A03
Support
Support comes from research on the effects of an epilepsy drug GVG.
Paterson and Markou 2002
Found that GVG reduces the surge of dopamine in the NAc that occurs after taking nicotine.
This reduces the addictive tendencies of nicotine.
By counteracting pleasurable expericnes that are gained by the increase in dopamine, this drug may offer an alternative way of treating nicotine addiction.
Support for role of gulamamte and GABA
Supported by study of nicotine dependent rats… D’Souza and Markou 2013
Researchers blocked transmission of glutamate
Results in a decreased in nicotine intake and nicotine seeking in the animals.
This is because glutamate usually enhances the dopamine releasing effects of nicotine.
Nicotine intake and nicotine seeking also decreased when GABA was enhanced.
Findings are consistent with explanations of the action of these two neurotransmitters during smoking and reinforce their role in the development of nicotine addiction.
Nicotine and Parkinson’s disease
Support from the treatment of Parkinson’s disease.
Fagerstrom et al 1994
Treated two elderly people with Parkinson’s with nicotine gum and patches.
Found significant chnages in symptoms that were attribute to he increased levels of dopamine caused by the nicotine administration.
Suggests that nicotine may have a neurprotective function agaisnt the development of PD and may also be benefitical in its treatment.
Implications
Nicotine and depression
Being female is a risk factor for depression in both Western and Chinese culture.
Canadian studt found that LT smoking can have an adverse effect on mood because it alters brain neurochemistry.
Khaled et al 2009
Found that in incidence of depression was highest in LT smokers and lowest at in those that had never smoked.
Also…
The case in a Chinese study
Smoking associated with a greater risk of depression,with female smokers being particularly at risk.
Suggests…
That the gender prevalence of depression in Chinese female smokers could be due to both altered brain chemistry due to smoking and being female.
Nicotine affects men and women differently
Cosgrove et al 2014
Studied the brain of 8 men and women all LT smokers using PET scans to measure changing levels of dopamine when smoking.
Found
Women
Rapid and strong dopamine effect in dorsal putamen
Mild effects in ventral striatum
Men
Only moderate to low activation in dorsal putamen
Rapid and strong activation in ventral stiatum
Findings supports claims that men and women smoke for different reasons…
Men for the nicotine effects itself.
Women to relieve stress and manage mood/
Real life applications
There exist several treatment programmes based on conditioning principles.
Aversion theory
Which counterconditions nicotine addictions by associating the pleasure ale effects of smoking with aversive stimulus such as a sinful electric shock.
Some research studies…
Have found this to be an effective treatment.
James Smith 1988
Ppts gave themselves aversive electric shocks whenever they engaged in any smoking related behaviours.
After one year
50% were still abstaining, a number higher proportion than 25% of people who continue not to smoke after choosing to give up.
Such effective applications of learning theory have measurable and significant practical benefits in terms of reducing NHS spending and improving healthy and saving lives.
A reductionist approach
Neurochemical explanations are reductionists because they explain addiction at the most fundamental level of the activity of neurotransmitter molecules, rather than at higher levels like social influences.
Almost, only 50% of people who experiment with cigarette smoking become dependent on nicotine.
Won Choi et al
Won Choi et al found that adolescents who were most likely to become dependent were not committed to abstaining, had friends who smoked and perceived themselves to be underachieving at school, these are all social factors.
Therefore…
This explanation is very sides and fails to consider social factors and instead a holistic approach should be considered.
Real life application
A greater understanding of neurochemistry can lead to development of new treatments of nicotine addiction, such as nicotine replacement theory in forms of patches.
Research is even raising the possibility of nicotine immunisation.
But…
The potienal practical benefits of greater understanding go beyond nicotine addiction.
This is because…
Some diseases have high co morbidity with nicotine use; that is they occur together frequently.
Examples
Schizophrenia and depression and alcoholism all of which are strongly associated with continued smoking.
So further research which offers more effective treatments for nicotine addiction also holds out the prospect of greater advances in treatments for these co morbid disorders.
Individuals differences
Saul Shiffman et al 1995
Studied ‘chippers’ = people who regularly smoke even for decades, but do not become dependent on nicotine.
Those who smoked a average of five cigarettes a day showed no signs of a withdrawal syndrome when they abstained.
They also performed better on cognitive tasks than decadent smokers.
It appears that there must be non chemical factors that protect some s overs from addiction, although it is currently unclear what these factors are.
One possibility…
The researchers suggest is that some people smoke because they have learned to do so trhough modelling.
So their motivation has nothing to do with nicotine at all.