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Topic 4-8, Carbohydrate, Chemical and physical properties, :, Biological…

- - - - Nucleosides consist of covalent nitrogen bases attached to sugars (ribose or deoxyribose), but without a phosphate group.
      - Nucleosides = pentose sugar + nitrogenous base
    - - Pure base nucleotides (ribose or deoxyribose) and one to three phosphate groups.
      - Nucleotides = pentose sugar + nitrogenous base + phosphate group
  - - - Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
      - Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
    - - Pentose sugar
      - Phosphate groop
      - Nitrogenous base
        
        Purine
        
        Adenine and Guanine
        
        Pyrimidine:
        
        Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil
  - - - Deoxyribose sugar
        
        No oxygen binds to the second carbon.
        
        Deoxyribonucleic acid
        (DNA)
      - Ribose sugar
        
        Oxygen is attached to the second carbon.
        
        Ribonucleic acid
        (RNA)
  - - - Cytosine
      - Uracil
        
        Found in RNA
      - Thymine
        
        Found in TRNA DNA
        
        Found in DNA
    - - Adenine
      - Guanine
  - - - RNA requires bases to be hydrolyzed.
      - DNA requires acids to be hydrolyzed.
    - - Denaturation is Separation of DNA from double strands to single strands
      - Renaturation is Two single strands of DNA are paired together.
  - - - The bases that make up the two polynucleotide strings lie in the same plane. and must match
      - Adenine and thymine (A-T) and guanine and cytosine (G-C) are always matched with each base pair.
      - hydrogen bond
  - - - RNA
      - DNA
    - - Adenosine 5 -triphosphate (ATP)
    - - NAD+
      - NADP+
      - Coenzyme A
      - FAD
    - - Adenosine 3Prime-5Prime-cyclic-monophosphate (cAMP)
    - - ATP, GTP, NADH
- - - - Group 1 (Oxidoreductases)
        
        Group 2 (Transfers)
        
        Group 3 (Hydrolases)
        
        Group 4 (Lies)
        
        Group 5 Isomers)
        
        Group 6 (Lygase) or(Synthase)
  - - - Temperature
      - The pH
      - Enzyme concentration
      - The concentration of the substratum
  - - - -Enzymes are essential and essential for living organisms
      - -This is because most of the chemical reactions in cells take place very slowly.
      - -Without enzymes, the reaction products can be converted into other chemicals.
      - -If the enzyme is lacking, it can cause abnormal functioning of cells
      - -such as mutation, absence, and underproduction overproduction
- - - - Fatty acid chains may contain no double bonds—that
        is, be saturated or contain one or more double
        bonds that is, be mono-or polyunsaturated.
      - types of fatty acid
        
        Eicosanoids: These compounds, derived from eicosa- (20-carbon) polyenoic fatty acids
        
        Polyunsaturated (polyethenoid, polyenoic) acids, containing two or more double bonds
        
        Monounsaturated (monoethenoid, monoenoic) acids, containing one double bond
    - - chain length
        
        Long chain Fatty Acids 13-21 carbon atoms
        
        Medium chain Fatty Acids 6-12 carbon atoms
        
        Short chain Fatty Acids carbon atoms (2-6)
        
        Very long chain fatty acids more than 22 carbon atoms
  - - - Phospholipids:
        
        fatty acid + alcohol + phosphoric acid
        
        sphingophospholipids
        
        glycerophospholipids
        
        Phosphatidic acid = glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphoric acid Intermediate in triacylglycerols and phosphoglycerols synthesis
        
        Phosphatidylethanolamine (cephalin)
        Phosphatidycholine (lecithin)
      - Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids)
        fatty acid + sphingosine + carbohydrate
        
        Cerebrosides = ceramide + sugar
        
        Galactose: plasma membrane of cells in neural tissue
        Glucose: plasma membrane of cells in nonneural tissue
        
        Ceramide = sphigosine + fatty acid (amide linkage)
        
        Core structure of sphingolipids
        
        • Gangliosides = ceramide + complex oligosaccharide
    - - Eicosanoids
        
        Eicosanoids are a class of molecules derived from 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids, most frequently arachidonic acid
        
        Prostaglandins (PG)
        
        Smooth muscle contraction and relaxation Gastric secretion Platelet aggregation
        
        Leukotrienes (LT) and Lipoxins (LX)
        
        TXA2
        : contraction of arteries and platelet aggregation
        
        Thromboxanes (TX)
        
        Chemotaxis / Inflammation / Allergic reaction
      - Steroids
        
        All steroids are related to a characteristic molecular structure
        composed of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four rings
        
        steroid hormones
        
        testosterone
        
        estradiol
        
        sterol from fungi
        and yeast
        
        ergosterol
        
        bile salt
        
        cholic acid
        
        plant sterol
        
        stigmasterol
      - Ketone bodies
        
        ketones are substances produced by the liver during gluconeogenesis, a process that creates glucose in times of fasting and starvation.
        
        Ketone bodies are the water-soluble molecules
        (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone)
        
        provide energy to the cells of the body when
        glucose is low or absent in the diet.
      - Terpene
        
        Terpenesare largely found as constituents of essential oils
        
        -Monoterpenes: 2 isoprene units, 10 carbon atoms
        : Geradioland Menthol
        -Sesquiterpenes: 3 isoprene units, 15 carbon atoms
        : Farnesol
        -Diterpenes: 4 isoprene units, 20 carbon atoms
        : Retinal
        -Triterpenes: 6 isoprene units, 30 carbon atoms
        : Squalene
        -Tetraterpenes: 8 isoprene units, 40 carbon atoms:
        Lycopene, β-Carotene, and Lutein
    - - Glycerol Ester (Fat and oil)
        
        Diglyceride
        
        Triglyceride
        
        Monoglyceride
      - Alcohol Ester (Waxes)
        
        Myricyl palmitate
    - - Glycerol ester
        Alcohol ester
        Sphingolipids
    - - Sterol derivatives
        Terpene derivatives
  - - - 12 /Lauric acid / Dodecanoic acid
      - 14 /Myristic acid /Tetradecanoic acid
      - 16 /Palmitic acid /Hexadecanoic acid
      - 18/ Stearic acid /Octadecanoic acid
      - 20/ Arachidic acid /Eicosanoic acid
      - 24 /Lignoceric acid /Tetracosanoic acid
    - - 20:5 Timnodonic acid Eicosapentaenoic acid
      - 20:4 /Arachidonic acid /Eicosatetraenoic acid
      - 18:2 /Linoleic acid /Octadecadienoic acid
      - 18:1 /Oleic acid /Octadecenoic acid
    - - linoleic acid and Linolenic
      - Must be obtained from food
      - • The human body cannot synthesize unsaturated fatty acids
        with double bonds beyond the 9th position carbon.
    - - Fatty acids that the body can synthesize by the product of
        glucose oxidation
    - - adversely affect multiple risk factors, including plasma lipids and lipoproteins,
        systemic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, insulin resistance, diabetes and adiposity
      - The consumption of trans fats increases the risk of coronary heart disease by raising
        levels of LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of "good" HDL cholesterol
  - - - VLDL (very low density lipoprotein)
        LDL (low density lipoprotein)
        HDL (high density lipoprotein)
      - Chilomicrons are lipids that the body receives from food after being digested in the small intestine
  - - - Phosphoglycerides/Membrane components
      - Ketone bodie/Energy sources
      - triacylglycerols/ torage, transport
      - Fatty acids/ Energy sources, biosynthetic precursors
- - - - Amino acid derivatives
        
        Chemical and physical properties of amino acids
        
        Peptide bond and peptide bond formation
        
        Structure of proteins
        
        • Protein classification
        
        Biological function and the importance of proteins
- - - - metabolic intermediates
      - Storage energy
      - Major fuel source
      - Structural component
      - Components of the nucleotides
      - Play roles in lubrication
      - Cellular intercommunication
    - - Stereochemical Structure and Nomenclature
        
        Aldose : aldehyde (-CHO)
        
        Ketose : ketone (-C=o)
        
        Nomenclature
        3c=triose 4c=tetrose 5c=pentose 6c=hexose 7c=heptose
      - Polysaccharide : 1.Polymer of monosaccharide with glycosidic bonds
        2.Linear or branch polymer
      - Oligosaccharide : Monosaccharide ( 2-15 molecules)
        covalently link together with glycosidic bond
    - - 1.monosaccharides
      - 2.oligosaccharide
      - 3.polysaccharide
    - - 2.Epimerization : Isomerase and Epimerase
        
        3.Enediol Formation