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Animal Physiology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Self cells : body cells
      - Non self : foreign substances
      - Identified using membrane protein patterns (present on all nucleated cells)
      - Antigen : Molecules on cell surface that trigger immune response
      - Every antigen has a specific antibody that is complementary to it
    - - Codominant genes : A B and O
      - Rhesus factor (determines +ve or -ve)
        
        Presence : +ve
        
        Absence : -ve
      - AB : universal recepient
      - O : universal donor
      - Major histocompatibility complex : immune system identifies as self cells
      - Blood transfusion : incompatible blood group cause rejection due to incorrect antibody and antigen match
    - - Zoonosis : disease that crosses the species barrier from animals to humans
      - Ex: AIDS, Ebola, SARS, etc
      - Occurs in bacteria and fungi most often
      - Occurs in virus if it mutates
  - - - Pathogen enters body
      - Macrophage encounters pathogen
      - Leucocyte : mammalian white blood cells
      - Macrophage can move into tissues from blood stream by cytotoxic movement. Partially digests the pathogen using lysosomes
      - Presents the antigens of the pathogen onto the macrophage's surface
      - T helper cells identify the pathogen using antigen presenting macrophage
      - T Helper cell activates specific B lymphocyte that can produce the appropriate antibody. B lymphocyte clones into multiple plasma cells
      - Plasma cells produce and release antibodies into blood stream
      - Some plasma cells remain in blood for a long time as memory cells
    - - Primary immune response : body first recognises pathogen and takes time to clone B lymphocytes. Symptoms appear
      - Secondary immune response : Body is prepared to fight the pathogen upon second exposure. Symptoms not developed. Immunity is gained
      - Memory cells are responsible for immunity
      - Memory cells can reproduce quickly to produce antibodies upon second exposure of pathogen. Pathogen is killed before symptoms develop
    - - Protein substances produced by plasma cells (B lymphocytes)
      - PANIC (mnemonic)
      - Marks pathogen to be destroyed
      - Agglutinates (Clumps together) pathogens to be digested by phagocytosis
      - Neutralises pathogen
      - Y shaped molecule, Binding sites on each fork of the Y
      - Epitope : exposed region of antigen
      - Paratope : complementary region on antibody that binds ot epitope
    - - Allergic reaction aka anaphylaxic attack
      - Allergen : non pathogenic substance that triggers an immune response
      - First exposure of allergen causes B lymphocytes to release IgE (immunoglobin E antibodies)
      - IgE binds to mast cells (type of leucocytes) to prime them
      - During second exposure, the mast cells release high amounts of histamine chemical into bloodstream
      - Histamine causes inflammation along with allergic symptoms - sneezing, itchiness, congestion, etc
      - Common allergens: Pollen, dust, peanuts, egg whites
      - Vasodilation - redness and heat
      - Capillary permeability - swelling (fluid leaks) and pain (compressing nerves
  - - - Active
        
        Involves production of memory cells
        
        Long lasting immunity
        
        Takes some time to come into effect
        
        Ex: recovering from disease (natural), vaccination (artificial)
      - Passive
        
        No memory cells produced
        
        Short lived immunity
        
        Effect is experienced sooner than active
        
        Ex: Breastfeeding (natural), antibody injection (artificial)
    - - Specific
        
        Different response according to the nature of pathogen
        
        Immune response by anitbodies
        
        Antibodies are specific to their antigens
        
        Humoral immunity
      - Non specific
        
        Antigen is not identified, same response for all pathogens
        
        Immune response using macrophages
        
        Cell mediated (macrophages, cytokines, T helper cells)
  - - - Many antigen patterns in one pathogen
      - Many B lymphocytes are activated to clone
      - Many types of antibodies can be produced against one pathogen
    - - Monoclonal antibodies are derived from one B lymphocyte only
      - Not naturally occuring, retrieved artificially
      - Antigen injection into lab animal, it clones specific B lymphocytes
      - Blood cells harvested from spleen, cloned plasma cells are fused with myeloma cells (cancerous tumor)
      - Hybridoma cells are made : reproduce infinitively and quickly, immortal if kept under right condition
      - Produces monoclonal antibodies
      - Used in pregnancy tests
        
        Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) is a hormone that is released by embryo in early stages.
        
        It is used to test for pregnancy
        
        Pregnancy tests work on ELISA basis (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay)
        
        There are free monoclonal antibodies in reaction site along with dye enzyme
        
        it traps HCG and moves to test site
        
        There are fixed free monoclonal antibodies in dye substrate in test site
        
        Dye color changes when the bonded monoclonal antibodies also fuse with fixed antibodies
        
        Control site has a fixed antibody that binds with free monoclonal antibodies are changes color regardless of presence of HCG or not