founder

capital: Manyakhet

performed Hiranyagarbha ritual (rebirth as Kshatriya)

Dashavtar Temple @ Ellora

Defeated Gangas and Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (governors of Chalukyas of Badami)

Built the rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora

Defeated Pratiharas and Palas for Kanauj

Second ruler to occupy Kanauj

King of Ceylon sent him two statues as an act of submission

Victories over North Indian kingdoms

Follower of Jainism

Jinasena was his chief preceptor (converted him to Jainism)

Kavirajamarga - Kannada work - first poetic work in Kannada language

His daughter Chandrobalabbe administered Raichur Doab for some time

Al-Masudi visited

Marched south and captured Tanjore and even Rameshwaram

Krishneswara temple at Rameshwaram

Nalachampu by Trivikrama, Kavirahasya by Halayudha

Vaishnavism and Shaivism flourished

Jainism progressed

Prosperous Buddhist settlements - Kanheri, Sholapur, Dharwar

Harmony among various religions

Active commerce between Deccan and Arabs

Rashtras - Rashtrapatis - province

Vishayas - Vishayapati - district

Bhukti - bhogapati - 50-70 villages

Officers were directly appointed by the central government

Village assemblies played a significant role in village administration

village headman and village accountant - hereditary

gram mahattara - village elder who often helped village headman in his duties

koshta-pala- law and order in towns

nad-govundas or desa gramakutas - hereditary revenue officers

Patronised Sanskrit literature, Jain literature

Amoghavarsha - Kavirajamarga

Trivikrama - Nalachampu - Indra III

Halayudha - Kavirahasya - Krishna III - grammar book (verbs with meaning)

Pampa (final compilation by Gunabhadra) - Adipurana - About Rishabanath

Jinasena - Parsvabhudaya - biography of Parsva

Sakatayana - Amogavritti - Grammar (patronised by Amoghavarsha)

Viracharya - Ganitasaram - Mathematics (patronised by Amoghavarsha) - negative number does not have a square root

Amoghavarsha I - Kavirajamarga - first poetic work in Kannada

Pampa - Vikramasenavijaya (Kannada Mahabharata - Arjuna alone is the hero, Draupadi is his wife only)

Ponna - Santipurana (patronised by Krishna III) - Life of 16th Jain tirthankara Santinatha

Kailasa temple - general features are Dravidian

Shikhara similar to shikara of Mamallapuram rock cut temples

Sculpture of Durga slaying Mahishashura

Sculpture of Ravana lifting Mount Kailash

Paintings depicting scenes from Ramayana

Island near Bombay originally called Gharapuri/Sripuri - Portuguese called it Elephanta

Similarities between sculptures of Ellora and Elephanta

At the entrance to sanctum, there are figures of Dwara-Palaks

sculptures of Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurti are found

Trimurti statue - shows Shiva as creator, preserver, destroyer

730-1036 AD

Capital - Avanti, Kanauj

Nagabhata I - Founder; Bhoja is called the real founder and greatest ruler

Gwalior Prashasti written in Sanskrit

Bhoja I assumed title Adi Varaha (devotee of Vishnu) - found on some of his coins

Al-Masudi visited after Bhoja's death; called the Pratihara Kingdom "Al Juzr" and the king "Baura"

Bhoja Prabandha - Ballala Deva - 11th century text

Rajasekhara - Sanskrit poet and dramatist; during the reign of Mahipala, grandson of Bhoja

Ananga Pala

957 - 1192 AD

Capital - Ajmer

Ajay Rai Chauhan - Built Ajmer

Chand Bardai (court poet) - Prithvi Raj Raso (Braj Bhasa poem)

Jayanaka - Prithviraj Vijaya

Prithvi Raj Chauhan built Qila Rai Pithora

Defeated Ghori in First Battle of Tarain, killed in the second

942-1243 AD

Capital - Anhilwad

Ruled over Gujarat - golden period of Gujarat history

Sun temple at Modhera by Bhima I

Mulraj - founder

Bhima I was defeated by Muhammad Ghazni - plundered Somnath temple

Bhima II defeated Muhammad Ghori

11th-12th century

Jaichandra’s daughter married Prithvi Raj Chauhan

Defeated by Ghori in Battle of Chandawar

Also called Jejakabhukti dynasty
(Feudatories of Gurajara-Pratiharas)

Kandariya Mahadeva temple - Dhangadeva

Image of chief deity in garbhagriha (where king, his immediate family and priest were allowed)

Commoners were not allowed entry in Khajuraho

Yashovarma - founder; Commissioned Lakshmana temple

Extended kingdom to Chambal and Narmada

Resisted Muhammad Ghazni when he attacked Kalinjar fort

founder: Gopala

Patronised mahayana buddhism

Mahipala I constructed and repaired several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya. Gopala founded the famous monastery at Odantapura (Bihar). Dharmapala established the Vikramashila and the Somapura Mahaviharas (Bangladesh)

Uttarapathaswamin title

Revived Nalanda

8th-9th century

Santarakshita and Atisa Dipankara - founder of Sarma tradition of Buddhism popular in Tibet were scholars at Vikramshila

Destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji

Arab merchant- Sulaiman calls the Pala kingdom "Ruhma" and attests to its power

Devapala defeated Amoghavarsha

Five Mahaviharas - Nalanda, Odantapura, Vikramshila (Bihar), Somapura, Jagadala (Bangladesh)

Mahipala: Defeated by Rajendra Chola

Last great patrons of Buddhism

Court poet - Jaydev - Gita Govinda

Bakhtiar Khilji defeated him in 1197

Kalhana’s Rajtarangini is the first systematic written history in India (12th century)

Lalitaditya Muktapida (Karkota dynasty) - Martand Sun Temple in Srinagar

Avantivarma (Utpala dynasty)- Dam on Vitasta river (Jhelum)

Didda (Lohara dynasty) wife of Kshemagupta (only woman ruler in history of Kashmir)

Conflict with Cholas and eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

Destroyed by Hoysalas in 12th century

Contributed to Kannada and Sanskrit literature

Tailapa II- Founder - killed last ruler of Rashtrakuta (Karaka); Patronised Kannada poet Ranna

Someshwara I: Established Kalyani as capital; Killed Rajadhiraja Chola in battle of Koppam

1076 AD - Chalukya Vikram era

Left many Kannada inscriptions

Kashmir poet Bilhana - Vikramankadevacharita

Vijnaneshwara - Mittakshara - treatise on inheritance (jurist)

Shavite

1110-1326 AD

Capital - Warangal

Prolaraja - Founder

Ganapati - Most powerful ruler

Important seaport - Motupalli (Marco Polo talked about it)

Rudramadevi (1262-1289) - famous woman ruler - changed name on inscription and pretended she was a man

1187-1312 AD

Capital - Devagiri

Founders of Marathi culture

Bhillam V - Founder

Raja Ramachandra - last ruler - submitted to Alauddin Khilji

Capital - Belur, shifted to Halebidu

South Karnataka

Growth of Kannada and Sanskrit literature

Temples of Halebidu

first major ruler

Chennakeshava temple at Belur

Originally Jain, became Vaishnava under Ramanujacharya

Vira Ballala III - Last ruler - Killed by commander of Alauddin Khilji

Battle of Kayadra : Bhima II vs Ghori (D)

Battle of Tarain I: Ghori vs PVC (W)

Battle of Tarain II: Ghori vs PVC (D)

Battle of Kannauj: Ghori vs Jaichand (D)

Founded the Imperial Chola line

Built town of Tanjore and temple for goddess Nishumhasudini

Ended Pallava kingdom by beating Aparajita and annexing Tondaimandalam

Defeated Pandyas

(Maduraiyyam Elamum Konda - one who defeated Madurai)

Krishna III defeated him in the Battle of Takkolam

Provided vimana of the famous Nataraja temple (Chidambaram) with a golden roof

Uttiramerur Inscriptions: Village administration under Cholas - Pioneers of LSG in India

Devout Shaiva

Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore in 1010 AD - Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan

Buddhist Monastery at Nagapattnam

Irrigation tank called Cholagangam

Whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola empire

Defeated Jayasimha II of Western Chalukyas - Tungabhadra was recognised

Reasserted Chola authority over Chera and Pandya country

Crossed Ganga and defeated Mahipala I (Pala) - founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram to commemorate his success

Expedition to Sri Vijaya

Rajesvaram temple in Gangaikondacholapuram

Tungabhadra was the northern boundary of the Chola kingdom

Later Cholas weak; Rajendra III was the last Chola king - Chola kingdom was absorbed into Pandyas

Royal tours to increase efficiency of administration

Administrative officials - Perundanam, Sirudanam

Extensive land grants to temples and Brahmanas

All lands were carefully surveyed for assessment of revenue

puravuvarithinaikkalam: land department

Ur - residential portion of village

400 types of taxes mentioned in an inscription

Residential and temple land was exempted from tax

Vetti - Forced labour (most frequently mentioned tax)

Kadamai - Land revenue

Position of tax collectors was often hereditary

Remission of taxes during difficult times

Kulottunga I had abolished all tolls - title of Sungam Tavirtta Cholan

Mandalam —> Valanadu (periyanattar) —> Nadu (nattar)

Village assemblies reached their zenith (Uttaramerur inscription gives details of Sabha organisation into committees)

Rich peasants (Vellalar) - exercised control over affairs of the Nadu

Uttarmerrur inscription provides information on village administration —> Parantaka I period

Village was divided into wards and each ward nominated members to the village council

Knowledge of Vedas, own residence and ownership of land was essential to be a ward member

Committing sins or stealing property could disqualify ward members

Number of committees and ward members varied from village to village

Kudavolai system to choose ward members

Muvendavelan - Rich peasant serving the three kings

Araiyar - Chief

Vellanvagai - land of non-brahman peasant proprietors

Brahmadeya - Land gifted to Brahmanas

Shalabhoga - Land for maintenance of a school

Devadana, Tirunamattukani - Land gifted to temples

Pallichchandam - land donated to Jain institutions

Elephants, cavalry, infantry, navy

Positons in military were hereditary

Kaikkolaperumpadai - royal troops, Velaikkarar - King’s personal troop

Kadagams - Military cantonments

Naval power reached zenith under Cholas

Controlled Malabar and Coromandel coasts

Bay of Bengal - lake of Cholas

Caste system prevalent - two major castes Valangai and Idangai

Pulaiyas - Outcastes

Brahmans and Kshatriyas enjoyed a superior status

Cooperation among various castes and sub-castes

Status of women- bad; Devadasi system- emerged; Sati- prevalent

Shaivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish

Mathas became important centres

Temples remained centres of economic activity

Cholas supported Brahmanical and Bhakti traditions

Revenue from trade led to prosperity of the region

Reclamation of forest lands, construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks helped in prosperity of agriculture

Silk-weaving at kanchi flourished

Uraiyur was famous for pulses and spices

Saliya weavers - Thanjavur, Uraiyur

Metal works developed - great demand for images in temples

Gold, Silver and Bronze coins were issued in plenty

Commercial contacts with China, Java, Sumatra and Arabia - Arabian horses were imported

Temples and Mathas were centres for education

Colleges at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal, Thirubhuvanai - inscriptions provide details

Endowments of land helped in running these institutes

Vedas, Epics, Mathematics and medicine were taught

Peak of Tamil literature

Ramayana - Kamban

Periyapuranam - Sekkilar (12th century)

Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi - Sivakasintamani

Ottakuthar - Moovarula (life of 3 Chola kings)

Zenith of Dravidian architecture

Chief feature - Vimana

Rajaraja I - Brihadeshwara temple

Rajendra I - Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram

Later Cholas - Airavatesvara temple, Kampaharesvara temple

Bronze statues of Nataraja or Dancing Shiva - Chola bronzes were world famous

Swamimalai - Famous for bronze statues (Sthapatis - sculptors)

1206 - Declared his independence after the death of Ghori - severed all connections with Ghori

Capital - Lahore

Lakh Baksh - Gave generous donations

Patronised Hasan Nizami - wrote Taj-ul-Massir (history of Delhi Sultanate written in Persian-first official history of the Sultanate)

Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque - Delhi (expanded by Illtutmish and Alauddin Khilji)

Adhai Din ka Jhopra - Ajmer

Belonged to Illbari tribe

Defeated Aram Baksh (son of Qutbuddin Aibak)

Shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi

Mongol policy of Illtutmish saved India from Chengiz Khan

Received the Mansur from the Abbasid Caliphate (1229) - made him the legal sovereign in India

Initiated hereditary succession to the Delhi Sultanate throne - nominated his daughter Raziya as successor

Created a new class of forty powerful military rulers -Chahalgani

Bandagan - Slaves bought for military service

Patronised many scholars and a number of Sufi saints - Minhaj-us-Siraj

Completed construction of Qutab Minar

Mosque at Ajmer

Hauz-i-Sultani - Large tank outside Delhi-i-Kuhna (old Delhi)

Introduced Arabic coinage into India - silver tanka which forms the basis of the modern Rupee

First and only Muslim woman to rule India

Inscriptions and Coins in name of Raziya

Destroyed the power of Chahalgani who he identified as the biggest threat

Zil-i-Illahi - Sultan was the God’s shadow on earth

Did not share power with nobles

Appointed spies to monitor activities of nobles

Indian muslims were not given important posts

Concentrated more on law and order rather than expanding his empire - robbers were mercilessly punished - Roads became safe

Diwan-i-Ariz - Separate military department

Eliminated all threats to his authority by fair or foul means

Introduced festival of Navroz

When Balban died, his grandson ascended the throne

Generous and lenient

Murdered by Alauddin Khilji in 1296

Sikandar-i-Sani'

Confiscated properties of nobles

Spy system was reorganised and activities of nobles were reported to the Sultan

Public sale of liquor and drugs was stopped

Social gatherings and festivities without his permission were prohibited

Dagh - branding of horses

Huliya - descriptive list of soldiers

Paid the soldiers in cash from the royal treasury

Four separate markets in Delhi - Each market under the control of Shahna-i-mandi

Markets were of: (1) Grain (2) Sugar, Oil, Cloth (3) Slaves, Cattle and Horses (4) Misc.

Diwan-i-Riyasat - Every merchant was registered under the market department - under Naib-i-Riyasat

Munhiyans - Secret agents who reported to the Sultan regarding functioning of markets

Harsh punishment if a shopkeeper tried to cheat or used false weights

First sultan of Delhi who ordered for measurement of land - basis for reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar

Fought the Mongols and defended the North-Western border

Siege of Chittor - Rani Padmini committed Jauhar - mentioned by Malik Muhammad Jayasi in Padmavath

Patronised poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan

Alai Darwaza - gateway to Qutab Minar

New capital at Siri

Ascended the throne as Ghazi Khan - killed the last Khilji ruler Khusrau Shah

Laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad near Delhi

Tolerant in religious matters

Only sultan to ban Sati

Diplomatic relations with Egypt, China and Iran

Only Delhi sultan who had received literary, religious and philosophical education

Sources - Isani, Barani, Ibn Batuta (Barani was during period of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq)

Sultanate reached its farthest extent during his reign

Shifted capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri)

Token Currency - copper coins at par with value of silver tanka (large scale forgery)

Increased taxation in the Doab - to cope up with financial losses - at a time of famine, this led to peasant revolts

Quarachil expedition - to invade China

Khurasan expedition

only Sultan to adopt an aggressive policy against Mongols

Agricultural reforms - Takkavi loans to buy seed and improve cultivation, Diwan-i-Kohi - department for Agriculture

Hasan Shah rebellion - establishment of Madurai Sultanate;

1336 - Vijaynagar Kingdom, 1347 - Bahamani kingdom - Asserted independence

Gujarat - Taghi rose against the Sultan

Founded the city of Jahanpanah - built Begumpuri mosque there

Died in 1351 - Badauni: Sultan was freed from the people and people from the Sultan

Chosen as sultan by nobles after death of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Appointed Khan-i-jahan Maqbal - a Telugu Brahmin convert as his wazir

Chose to reassert his authority over North India instead of reasserting his authority over South India

Bengal became free from Sultanate

1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the Jawalamukhi temple library and translated them into Persian

Strictly followed the advice of ulemas in administration

iqta system was made hereditary

Iqtadar collected land revenue and excessive revenue was paid to the exchequer - Fawazzil

Kharaj - 1/10 of produce - land tax

Zakat - 2% tax on property

Khams - 1/5 booty - tax on spoils of war

First sultan to impose irrigation tax (Hasil-i-Sharb)- also dug canals and wells

Developed royal factories called Karkhanas where many slaves were employed

Free hospitals and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims

Increased the number of slaves

Reimposed Jizya on non-Muslims and treated Hindus as second grade citizens

Diwan-i-Khairat: to take care of orphans and widows

Diwan-i-Bandagan: Welfare of slaves

After his death, struggle for power between Sultan and nobles - his successors faced rebellions by the slaves

1398: Taimur’s invasion dealt a final blow to Tughlaq dynasty

Taimur appointed him as governor of Multan - he captured Delhi and established the Sayyid dynasty

Succeeded by Mubarak Shah

Busy against conspirators

Bahlul Lodi dominated the administration

His tomb is in Lodi gardens

Handed over the throne to Bahlul Lodi and retired

Lodis were the first Afghans on the Sultanate throne - before him were all Turks

Founded city of Agra - shifted capital from Delhi to Agra

Brought the whole of Bihar under his control - many Rajput chiefs were defeated

Roads and irrigation facilities

Destroyed Hindu temples

Gaz-i-sikandari - For measuring cultivated fields

Moth ki Masjid - Built by his minister

Dissatisfaction with nobles

Daulat Khan Lodi invited Babur to invade India

Extended as far south as Madurai

Islamic state - Sultans considered themselves representatives of the Caliph

Name of the Caliph was included in khutba and on coins

Illtutmish, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq obtained Mansur from Caliph

Initially the Sultanate was scattered as garrison towns, which were difficult to administer

Efforts to consolidate the sultanate were first taken by Balban (later by Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad Bin Tughlaq)

Internal Consolidation - Forests were cleared in Ganga-Yamuna Doab and hunter-gatherers and pastoralists expelled

Sultan was the ultimate authority for military, legal and political activities

No clear law of succession

Naib - enjoyed all powers of the Sultan and had general control over all the departments

Diwan-i-Wizarat - Finance department - headed by Wazir

Diwan-i-Arz - military department (started by Balban) - Headed by Arz-i-Mumalik

Sultan was the commander-in-chief, not the Arz-i-Mumalik

Branding of horses, Payment in cash - Allauddin Khilji

Diwan-i-Risalat - Department of religion - headed by Sadr

Diwan-i-Insha - Correspondence between ruler and officials

Slaves were loyal to their masters, but often not to their heirs - led to political instability

Iqtas - Provinces under the Delhi sultanate - governors were called muftis/walis - maintained law and order, collected land

revenue

Shiq - Shiqdar

Paragana - Amil- revenue collection (number of villages)

Village Headman - Muqqadam/Chaudhri, Village accountant was called patwari

Iqta - Land assigned to nobles in return for their services

Khalisa - Under the Sultan - revenues spent for maintenance of royal court

Inam - assigned to religious leaders or institutions

Peasantry paid 1/3 to 1/2 of produce as taxes; also paid other taxes

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq took steps to enhance agriculture

Number of cities and towns came up - Lahore, Multan, Daulatabad, Delhi, Jaunpur (Firuz Shah Tughlaq)

Inland trade dominated by Gujarat Marwaris and Muslim Bohra merchants

Royal roads were in good shape

Gold dinars introduced during Allauddin Khilji after his South Indian expedition

Turks introduced arches, domes, minarets, decorations using Arabic script

Marbles, red and yellow sandstones

Combined Arch and Dome

Used cheaper and easily available grey stones

Qutab Minar - Started by Aibak, finished by illtutmish, repaired by Firoz Shah Tughlaq - dedicated to Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar

Jama Masjid, Badaum - Illtutmish

Alai Darwaza - Entrance to Qutab Minar added by Alauddin Khilji

Tughlaqabad - Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, City of Jahanpanah, Begumpuri Masjid - Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Kotla fort, Jaunpur City - Firoz Tughlaq

Moth ki Masjid - minister of Sikandar Lodi

Agra City - Sikandar Lodi

Sarangi and Rabab were introduced

Amir Khusro - Ragas like Ghora and Sanam, Qawalli by blending Hindu and Iranian systems, Invented Sitar

Ragadarpan translated to Persian during Firoz Shah Tughlaq

Raja Man Singh - Man Kautuhal

Pir Bhodan - Sufi saint and musician

Tarikh/Tawarikh = History in Persian (Language of administration of the Delhi sultans)

Barani - Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi - History of Tughlaq dynasty

Minhaj-us-Siraj - Tabaqat-i-nasari - History of Muslim dynasties upto 1260

New style of poetry - Sabaq-i-Hind

Tughlaq Nama - Rise of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

Khazain-ul-Futuh - Conquests of Alauddin Khilji (also called Tarikh-i-Alai)

Ashiqa (love story of son of Alauddin Khilji and Deval Rani of Gujarat)

Zia Nakshabi - first to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian

Tutu Nama - Book of the parrot - Translated into Turkish and other European languages

Kalhana - Rajtarangini - period of Zain-ul-Abidin

Shihabuddin Umari - Wrote about administrative practices in the Sultanate

Yahya Sirhindi - Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi - History of Sayyid dynasty

Amuktyamalyada - Krishnadeva Raya

Maduravijayam - Gangadevi - Includes Kumarakampana’s expedition to Madurai - Vijaynagar vs Madurai sultanate

Manucharitam - Allasani Peddana

Travellers - Niccolo Conti, Abdur Razzak (Herat), Nikitin (15th AD), Domingo Paes, Duarte Barbosa, Fernao Nuniz

Domingo Paes compared Vijaynagar city to Rome

Srirangam Copper plates - Devaraya II - Genealogy and achievements of Vijaynagar rulers

Harihara and Bukka were founders (originally served as Kakatiyas of Warangal); Had converted to Islam but then reconverted to Hinduism u/d influence of Vidyaranya

Founded Vijaynagar on the south bank of Tungabhadra

brought the whole Hoysala kingdom u/d their control by 1346

Kumarakampana’s expedition to Madurai is described in Maduravijayam - Extended Vijaynagar empire till tip of Rameshwaram

Conflict with Bahamani kingdom over the Raichur Doab and areas of Krishna-Godavari delta

Greatest ruler of the dynasty - Devaraya II - could not win over the Bahamani - After his death, empire became weak

1486 - 1509: Founded by Saluva Narasimha

Immadi Narasimha Raya - Vasco Da Game landed in India during his period

Founded by Vira Narasimha

During Krishnadeva Raya’s period, Bahamani kingdom had been replaced by Deccan Sultanate

Battle of Diwani/Raichur - Krishnadeva Raya defeated Muslim sultanates

Maintained friendly relations with Portuguese

Vaishanvite, but respected other religions

Patron of literature and art and was known as Andhra Bhoja - Amuktamalyada, Jambavati Kalyanam, Ushaparinayam

Ashtadiggajas - eight scholars in his court - Golden period of Telugu literature

Built Vitthalaswamy and Hazara Ramswamy temples in Vijaynagar

Built a new city Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi

Built many Rayagopurams

Battle of Talikota (1565) - (Bijapur, Ahmed Nagar, Golkonda, Bidar) defeated Rama Raya - Considered to mark the end of the Vijaynagar Empire - city was destroyed

Vijaynagar after the Tuluva dynasty

Last Vijaynagar ruler - Sri Ranga III

King was the absolute authority in judicial, executive and legislative matters - also the highest court of appeal

Succession was hereditary

Punishments were often harsh

Mandalam (Mandaleshwara/Nayak) —> Nadu —> Sthala —> Grama

Gave full powers to local authorities in administration

Income sources - land revenue (1/6th of produce), tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs at ports, taxes

Tax collection increased during the period of Krishnadeva Raya due to check on evasion

Tax on agriculture was on basis of quality of land

Army - Cavalry, infantry, artillery, elephants

Nayaks/Poligars - higher officials in the army - granted land (amaram) in exchange for services

Soldiers were paid in cash

borrowed from the Iqta system of the Mughal sultanate

Were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the Raya

Collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders

Kept part of revenue for personal use and to keep horses and elephants - formed the basis of Vijaynagar army

Revenue also used for maintaining temples and irrigation

Sent tributes to kings annually , and appeared in royal court

Kings could transfer them from one place to another

During the 17th century many established independent kingdoms

Allasani Peddana in Manucharita - Four Varnas

Foreigner accounts - splendid buildings and luxurious social life in Vijaynagar

Paes - Rich had beautiful houses with many servants, Devadasi tradition

Conti - Prevalence of slavery, dancing, music, cock-fighting, gambling

Sangama rulers were Shaivites - Virupaksha main diety

Other dynasties were Vaishnavites - Vaishnavism of Ramanuja was popular

Barbosa - Religious freedom was enjoyed by everyone - Muslims employed in administration and they could build mosques

Epics and Puranas were popular among the masses

Position of women was still low

Nuniz - large number of women were employed in royal palaces as dancers, domestic servants and palanquin bearers

Polygamy was prevalent

Sati was present

Women poets - Gangadevi (wife of Kumarakampana, author of Maduravijayam), Hannamma, Thirumalamma

Among the wealthiest regions of the world

Agriculture was chief occupation

Nun - Excavation of canals, irrigation facilities

Was located in an arid zone, but tanks stored water and canals conducted it to the city (Kamalapuram tank)

Hiriya canal (seen in ruins) drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley - Built by Sangama kings

Agricultural tracts were incorporated within fortification - Medieval sieges mostly focused on starving the defenders into
submission

General strategy was to hoard large amounts of grains into the granaries

Industries organised into guilds

Metalworks flourished

Spices, textiles and precious stones were in demand

Diamond mines in Kurnool and Anantapur

Main gold coin was called Varaha

Shipbuilding was developed - Many sea ports on the malabar coast - e.g. Cannanore

Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on the West, Burma, Malay and China in the East

Exports - cotton, silk, spices, rice, saltpetre, sugar, iron

Imports - Horses, pearl, copper, coral, mercury

Raya Gopurams - Thiruvannapalai, Chidambaram - immense scale - signalled presence of temple, displayed wealth of kings

Kalyana mandapams (halls for divine weddings) with carved pillars in the temple premises - Horse was the most common
symbol on these pillars

Amman shrines were added to already existing temples

Temples - Chidambaram, Thiruvannamalai
Varadharaja, Ekamparanatha (Both in Kanchipuram)

Metal images of Krishnadeva Raya and his queens at Tirupati

Deva Raya II - Hazara Ram temple, Hampi

Arch on gateway leading into fortifications were inspired by Turkish architecture

Built by Chalukyas in 9th-10th century

Enlarged during the Vijaynagar dynasty

Hall infant of the main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession

He also constructed the eastern gopuram

Built during the reign of Deva Raya II, enhanced during reign of Krishnadeva Raya

Vitthala deity primarily from Maharashtra - indicates Vijaynagara drew on different traditions to create an imperial culture

Shrine designed as Chariot

Krishna-Tungabhadra basin

No mortar or cementing agent was used in construction of these walls - edged together by interlocking

Virupaksha temple - Devadasi dancers performed

Pampadevi shrine

Mahanavami festival was celebrated

First excavated by Colin Mackenzie - first Surveyor General of India

1986 - World Heritage Site by UNESCO

Mentioned by Domingo Paes

Located in one of the highest points of the city

Rituals probably coincided with Mahanavami of Dussehra - kings displayed power and prestige on such occasions

Ceremonies - worship of images, worship of state cows, sacrifices

One of the two buildings in the royal residence (other being the audience hall)

Founded in 1347 by Alauddin Bahman Shah (called Hasan Gangu)

Capital - Gulbarga

Inducted large number of Hindus into administration

Observatory at Daulatabad

Chaul and Dabhol were important port cities

Muhammad Shah III : Most successful ruler due to the advice of Mahmud Gawan

Persian merchant ; Scholar of Mathematics

Endowments for a college in Bidar which was built in Persian style of Architecture

Expanded Bahamani kingdom through his conquests

Administrative reforms improved Sultans control over nobles and provinces

Not liked by nobles who induced the Sultan to execute him

After Muhammad Shah III, rulers were weak -> Provincial governors declared independence - Deccan Sultanates

Ahmadnagar - Nizam Shahi

Bijapur - Adil Shahi - Gol Gumbaz, Composed Kitab-i-Nauras (poems in praise of Hindu gods and Muslim saints)

Berar - Imad Shahi

Bidar - Barid Shahi

Golconda - Qutab Shahi - Char Minar

Masulipatnam: In delta of Krishna river; Chief port of Golconda

Fort at Masulipatnam built by Dutch - Both Dutch and English tried to control

Qutab Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on sale of textiles, spices to prevent it from passing into European hands

When Mughals extended their power to Golconda, their governor Mir Jumla played the English and Dutch against each other

1686 - Aurangzeb annexed Golconda - European companies looked for alternatives

Towns, trade and empires brought together people from different social strata - led to intermingling of ideas

People were not comfortable with social divisions being based on birth

1st wave of social awakening (6th-7th century BC) - Buddhism/Jainism

Great tradition - Dominant social customs, spread over a large area and across social strata

Little tradition - Region specific customs that emanate from the Great tradition, restricted in geographical extent

mostly associated with Goddess worship

Open to men and women

Caste and class differences were not important

Assimilated into Hinduism later on

Came from all castes including untouchables

Sharply critical of Buddhists and Jainas - especially Nayanars

Drew upon ideals of love and heroism of Sangam texts and blended it with Bhakti

Chola ruler Parantaka I had consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar in a Shiva temple

Nayanars and Alvars were revered by Vellala peasants

63 saints

Most important ones: Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, Manikkavasagar

Women Nayanars (3): Mangayarkkarasiyar; Isaignaaniyar; Karaikkal Ammaiyar

Shaivites

12 volume poetry compilation: Tirumurai

Names of Nayanars first compiled by Sundarar

First 7 volumes compile works of Appar, Sampandhar and Sundara as "Tevaram" (compiled by Nambiyandar Nambi )

12 saints

Most Imp. ones: Periyalvar, Andal (only female Alvar saint), Nammalvar, Tondaraddipodi

Vaishnavites

Major Anthology: Nalayira Divyaprabandham (also called as "Tamil Veda")

by Basavanna

Reaction to temple worship

Basavanna was a minister in the court of a Kalachuri ruler

Important proponents: Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Akkamahadevi

Began in Karnataka in 12th century

Against Brahmanical ideas about caste and women, rituals, idol worships, caste pollution

Argued for equality of all human beings

Vachana - compositions in Virashaiva tradition

Do not practise cremation - ceremonially bury their dead

Questioned the theory of rebirth

Encouraged post-puberty marriage and remarriage of widows - disapproved in Dharmashastras

Supported by groups that were marginalised in the Brahmanical order

Monism

Advaita Vedanta

Shankaracharya believed that everything is an illusion and there is no difference in self (atma) and absolute reality (Brahman)

Brahman (Ultimate reality = Oneness of soul and God) was without forms and attributes

Preached renunciation and path of knowledge to attain salvation

Too abstract to appeal to the common man

With emergence of idea of Sagunabrahmana, the Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahmana became unpopular

Born in Kaladi, Kerala

Welcomed tribals into Hinduism

Dvaita

Dualism of jivatama and paramatma - cannot merge

Kannada region - commentaries on Brahmasutras in Kannada

World is not an illusion but a reality

Vishistadvaita

Qualified Monism

God is Sagunabrahman - God, soul and matter are real

Prabatti marga - self-surrender to God

Advocated intense devotion to Vishnu

Invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism

Born in Tamil Nadu

Krishna Bhakti based on Bhagvadgita

Pushti Marg - extreme devotion

Rejected all forms of ritualism, outward displays of devotion, social differences based on birth

Rejected the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their family while serving the needy

Bhakti lay in sharing other’s pain

Focussed on worship of Vitthala temple in Pandharpur

Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram

Founder of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra

Commentary of Bhagvat Gita - Jnaneshwari - in Marathi

Preached gospel of love

Opposed idol worship, priestly domination and caste system

Advaita Vedanta

contemporary of Shivaji and Sambhaji

devotee of Rama and Hanuman

Opposed caste system

Sympathy towards lower castes

Revived Vaishnava tradition in Maharashtra

Contemporary of Shivaji

Created a background for Maratha nationalism

Opposed all social distinction

Composed abhangs

Disciple of Ramanuja

Later founded his own sect and preached in Hindi at Banaras and Agra

First to employ vernacular medium to propagate his ideas

Emancipation of people from the traditional caste rules

Chose disciples from all sections of the society disregarding class

Sakhis/Pads - composed by him and sung by wandering singers - main source of information about Kabir

His compositions are in Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani, Bijak, Kabir Granthavali

Wanted to reconcile higher teachings of both Hinduism and Islam

Emphasised equality of man before God

Vehemently opposed external worship in both Hinduism and Islam

Opposed priestly class and caste system

Condemned idol worship, rituals and polytheism

Kabir is an inspiration for those who questioned entrenched religious beliefs

founded the Dvaitadvaita (dualistic monism) doctrine

wrote "Vedanta-Parijata-Saurabha", a commentary on Brahmasutras

Radha-Krishna devotee and settled in Mathura

Founder of Sikh religion

Disciple of Kabir

Centre at Kartarpur - Dera Baba Nanak (banks of Ravi)

Strived to establish harmony between Hindus and Muslims

Condemned idol worship, rituals and polytheism

Instituted Langar - common kitche

Did not support renunciation - Insisted his followers should be householders

Expected followers to contribute towards a community fund

Sangat - Congregational Worship

Hymns - Shabad in Punjabi

He did not aim to establish a new religion, but his followers distinguished themselves from Hindus and
Muslims

Nam - Worship, Dan - Welfare, Isnan - Conduct

Adi Granth has verses from Nanak, Kabir, Baba Farid, Mirabai, Ram Das (hymns are called Gurbani)

Followers of Nanak increased during the time of his successors

Introduced Vaishanva tradition in Assam

Wrote in Assamese

Set up namghars (prayer houses) and satras (monasteries)

Teachings are called Bhagavati dharma (based on Bhagavat Gita and Bhagavat Purana)

Composition - Kirtana ghost

Disciple of Vallabhacahrya - popularised Krishna cult in North India

Sur Sagar, Sur Saravali, Sahitya Lahar

Accepted existing beliefs/practices - wanted to make them accessible to all

Devotee of Krishna (Married to a Sisodia prince from Mewar)

Popular in Rajasthan for her Bhajans - composed in Braj Bhasa

Bhajans theme - Krishna devotion, Challenged norms of Upper castes

Disciple of Ravidas (who was from untouchable caste)

Ramcharitmanas - Hindi/Awadhi version of Ramayana

Devotee of Rama

Contemporary of Akbar

Muslim bhakt of Krishna

from Afghanistan

Popularised the Krishna cult

Emphasised love, devotion, song and dance (Gudiya Vaishnavism)

Accepted disciples from all classes and castes

Condemned all distinction based on religion and caste

His teachings are still popular in Bengal - kirtans

Impetus for development of regional languages - Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada

Caste system was condemned - upliftment and importance to lower classes

Enriched literature and music

Concept of charity and service to fellow people

Condition of women was given an impetus

Gave people a simple religion