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Unit 8: Cardiovascular System Lauren Palla, Period 6 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Maintains normal pH by utilizing buffers
      - Maintains adequate fluid volume in circulatory system
      - Maintains body temperature by absorbing/ distributing heat
    - - Prevents blood loss; plasma proteins and platelets initiate clot formation
      - Prevents infection; agents of immunity are carried in blood (ex. antibodies, complement proteins, WBCs)
    - - Transports metabolic wastes to lungs and kidneys (elimination)
      - Transports hormones from endocrine organs to target organs
      - Delivers O2 and nutrients to body cells
- - - - Radial Pulse- located at wrist; most routinely used
      - Pressure Points- areas where arteries are close to body surface; can by compressed to stop blood flow in event of hemorrhage.
    - - Measuring BP: systemic arterial BP is measured indirectly by auscuitatory methods using a sphygmomanometer (based on detection of Korotkoff sounds)
        
        1) Wrap cuff around arm superior to elbow
        
        2) Increase pressure in cuff until it exceeds systolic pressure @ brachial artery
        
        3) Pressure is released slowly; examiner listens for sounds of Korotkoff with stethoscope
        
        Systolic Pressure- normally less than 120 mm Hg; pressure when sound first occurs
        
        Diastolic Pressure- >80 mm Hg; pressure when sounds disappear (artery no longer constricted)
- - - - Hemophilia- includes several hereditary bleeding disorders
        
        Symptoms: prolonged bleeding (especially @ joint cavities)
        
        Treatment- injections of genetically engineered factors; has eliminated need for plasma transfusion and risk of contracting hepatitis/ HIV
  - - - Hereditary Conditions that hinder venous return
        
        Obesity/ pregnancy
        
        Blood Pools
        
        Prolonged standing in one position
      - Elevated Venous Pressure can also cause varicose veins
        
        Straining to deliver baby
        
        Bowel movement
  - - - Symptoms: fatigue, pallor, dyspnea, chills
      - Causes: blood loss, not enough RBCs being produced, too many RBCs detroyed
        
        Blood Loss
        
        Chronic Hemorrhagic Anemia- slight but persistent blood loss (ex. hemorrhoids, bleeding ulcer)
        
        Hemorrhagic Anemia- rapid blood loss (ex. severe wound)
        
        Not Enough RBCs Being Produced
        
        iron-Deficiency Anemia- caused by hemorrhagic anemia, low iron intake, or impaired absorption
        
        Too Many RBCs Destroyed
        
        Thalassemias- one globin chain is absent/ faulty' RBCs are thin, delicate, and deficient in hemoglobin
    - - People with sickle cell don't contract malaria (possible benefit)
      - Treatment: acute crisis treated with transfusions; inhaled nitric oxide
      - Misshaped RBCs rupture easily and block small vessels -> poor O2 delivery/pain
- - - - Gives to: AB-, AB+
      - Antigens: A. B
      - Receives: AB-, A-, B-, O-
      - Antibodies: None
    - - Gives to: A+, AB+
      - Antigens:A
      - Receives: A+, A-, O+, O-
      - Antibodies: Anti-B (b)
    - - Gives to: B+, AB+
      - Antigens: B
      - Receives: B+, B-, O+, O-
      - Antibodies: Anti-A (a)
    - - Gives to: O+, A+, B+, AB+
      - Antigens: None
      - Receives: O+, O-
      - Antibodies: Anti-A (a). Anti-B (b)
    - - Gives to: AB+ ONLY
      - Antigens: A, B
      - Receives: All blood types
      - Antibodies: None
    - - Gives to: A-, A+, AB-, AB+
      - Antigens: A
      - Antibodies: Anti-B (b)
      - Receives: A-, O-
    - - Gives to: B-, B+, AB-, AB+
      - Antigens: B
      - Receives: B-, O-
      - Antibodies: Anti-A (a)
    - - Gives to: All blood types
      - Antigens: None
      - Receives: O-
      - Antibodies: Anti-A (a), Anti-B (b)
- - - - Aorta- the largest artery that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body
      - Brachiocephalic Artery- artery that connects to the aorta
      - Coronary Arteries- both arteries arise from base of aorta and supply atrial blood to heart
        
        Left Coronary Artery- supplies interventicular septum, anterior ventricular walls, left atrium, and posterior wall of left ventricule
        
        Right Coronary Artery- supplies right atrium and most of right ventricle; has 2 branches:
        
        Right marginal artery
        
        Posterior interventicular artery
      - Pulmonary Trunk- consists of pulmonary arteries that enter the right ventricle diagonally; carries deoxygenated blood
      - Inferior Vena Cava- returns blood from body regions below diaphragm; enters right atrium through the middle of the posterior surface of the heart
      - Pulmonary Veins- carries oxygenated blood from the lungs into the left atrium
      - Superior Vena Cava- returns blood from body regions above the diaphragm; enters the right atrium
      - Coronary Veins- collect blood from capillary beds
        
        Coronary Sinus- empties into right atrium; formed by merging cardiac veins
        
        Middle Cardiac Vein- @ posterior interventricular sulcus
        
        Small Cardiac Vein- @ inferior margin
        
        Great Cardiac Vein- @ anterior interventricular sulcus
    - - Internal features
        
        Interatrial Septum- separates atria
        
        Interventricular Septum- separates ventricles
        
        There are four chambers: two superior atria and two inferior ventricles
        
        Venticle- discharging chambers; make up most of the heart's volume
        
        Left Ventricle- post-inferior surface; pumps blood into aorta (largest artery)
        
        Right Ventricle- most of anterior surface; pumps blood into pulmonary trunk/ artery
        
        Trabeculae Carneae- irregular ridges of muscle in ventricular walls
        
        Papillary Muscles- project into ventricular cavity; anchor chordae tendineae (heart strings)
        
        Atria- small, thin-walled chambers; contribute little to propulsion of blood
        
        Right Atrium- receives deoxygenated blood from the body.
        
        Left Atrium- receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
      - Surface features
        
        Anterior Interventricular Sulcus- anterior position of interventricular septum; runs diagonally on heart's base
        
        Posterior Interventricular Sulcus- landmark at post-inferior surface that run vertically on heart's base
        
        Coronary Sulcus- atrioventricular groove that runs horizontally across the posterior side of the heart's base
    - - Pericardium- double-walled sac that surrounds the heart; made up of two layer
        
        Parietal Layer- lines the interior surface of fibrous pericardium
        
        Visceral Layer (Epicardium) - on external surface of the heart
        
        Pericardial Cavity- separates both deep serous pericardium; decreases friction
      - Epicardium- visceral layer of serous pericardium
      - Myocardium- circular/ spiral bundles of contractile cardiac muscle cells
      - Endocardium- innermost layer; is continuous with endothelial lining of blood vessels (lines heart chambers)
    - - Valves- ensure unidirectional blood flow through heart and prevents backflow of blood; open and close in response to pressure changes
        
        Atrioventricular Valves (AV)- prevents backflow into atria when ventricles contract (located between atrias and ventricles)
        
        Bicuspid/ Mitral Valve- made up of 2 cusps; lies between left atrium and left ventricle
        
        Tricuspid Valve- made up of 3 cusps; lies between the right atrium and the right ventricle
        
        Semilunar Valves (SL)- prevent backflow from major arteries back into ventricles (located between ventricles and major arteries)
        
        Pulmonary Semilunar Valve- located between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk
        
        Aortic Semilunar Valve- located between the left ventricle and the aorta
    - - Base- posterior surface; leans towards right shoulder
      - Apex- points towards left hip
- - - - Granulocytes- contain visible cytoplasmic granules
        
        Neutrophils- most active and abundant
        
        Basophils- produce histamine and heparin
        
        Eosinophils- immune system
      - Agranulocytes- do not contain visible cytoplasmic granules
        
        Lymphocytes- fight against infection
        
        Monocytes- boost immune responses (biggest)
  - - - Anucleate (no nucleus)
      - No organelles
      - Biconcave disc shape
      - Filled with hemoglobin (protein) for gas transport
      - Small diameter cells that contribute to gas transportation
    - - Dedicated to respiratory gas transport
      - Hemoglobin bids reversibly to O2
- - - - Tunica Externa (tunica adventitia)- outermost layer of wall
        
        Composed of mostly loose collagen fibers that protect/ reinforce wall and anchors it
        
        Infiltrated with nerve fibers and lymphatic vessels
      - Tunica Media- middle layer composed mostly of smooth muscle and sheets of elastin; sympathetic vasomotor nerve fibers innervate this layer and controls blood flow and pressure
        
        Vasoconstriction- decrease in lumen diameter
        
        Vasodialation- increases diameter
      - Tunica Intima- innermost layer that's in "intimate" contact with blood
        
        Endothelium- simple squamous epithelium that lines lumen of all vessels; slick surface reduces friction
        
        Subendothelial Layer- C.T. basement membrane (>1 mm)
    - - Arteries- divided into 3 groups based on size and function
        
        Elastic Arteries- thick-walled with large, low-resistant lumen (low pressure = flows better)
        
        Acts as pressure reservoirs that expand and recoil as blood is ejected from the heart
        
        Muscular Arteries (distributing arteries)- delivers blood to body organs; active in vasoconstriction
        
        Arterioles (resistance arteries)- control flow into capillary beds via vasodilation and vasoconstriction of smooth muscles
        
        Changing diameters change resistance to blood flow
      - Capillaries- microscopic vessels with walls just thinning tunica intima; supply almost every cell
        
        Exchanges gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones, etc. between blood and interstitial fluid
        
        Those found @ serous membranes of intestinal mensenteries have 2 additional features that form special arrangement of capillaries:
        
        Vascular Shunt- channel that directly connects arterioles with venules (bypasses true capillaries)
        
        Precapillary Sphincter- acts as valve that regulates blood flow to capillary bed
        
        Capillary Bed- interwoven network of capillaries between arterioles and venules
      - Veins- carry blood to the heart
        
        Formation begins when capillary beds unite in postcapillary venules
        
        Postcapillary Venules- where capillaries unites; are very porous and allows fluids and WBCs into tissues
        
        Large venules have 1-2 layers of smooth muscle cells
        
        Since blood pressure is lower than the arteries, adaptations ensure the return of blood to the heart
        
        Venous Valves- prevent backflow of blood; most abundant in veins of limbs
        
        Muscular Pump- contraction of skeletal muscles milks blood back to heart; prevents backflow (similar to squeezing toothpaste)
        
        Respiratory Pump- pressure changes during breathing and squeezes abdominal veins as thoracic veins expand, allowing blood to travel to heart
        
        Sympathetic Venocinstriction- under sympathetic control, smooth muscles constrict and pushes blood towards heart
        
        Venous Sinuses- flattened veins with extremely thin walls
        
        Have all tunics, with tunic media being the thin and tunic externa being thick