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Who is involved in LEARNING and factors that affect it?, # Motivation can…

- - - - Measurability
        
        How will it be measured
      - Performance
        
        Skill to be performed, should contain action verb
      - Specificity
        
        Under what conditions should learner performs skill?
    - - Remember
        
        Recall concepts/ideas
      - Understand
        
        Explain concepts/ideas
      - Apply (lower level = less thinking skills)
        
        Use information in new situations
      - Analyze
        
        Draw connections among ideas
      - Evaluate
        
        Justify a stand or decision
      - Create (higher level = more thinking skills)
        
        Produce new or original work
- - - - Lack necessary practice
    - - Difficulty breaking & unlearning existing habits
    - - Unequal distribution of resources & opportunities
    - - Lack conductive environment
    - - Breakdowns in communication
    - - Lack motivation
    - - Lack correct information
  - - - Intrinsic Motivation: engage in activity for own satisfaction, influenced by 3 needs (Self Determination Theory)
        
        Autonomy = choice
        
        Relatedness = belonging
        
        Competence = mastery
        
        Maslow's Hierarchy of Need:
        needs to be met = get to higher sense
      - Extrinsic Motivation: engage in activity motivated by external reward
  - - - 1st level of memory, where visual & auditory input enters
      - Not picked up info = not encoded
    - - 2nd level of memory, able to hold info for brief moment & work with it
      - Maintenance rehearsal required, if not unrehearsed info are lost
      - Working memory is limited = Cognitive load
        [2 types]
        
        Intrinsic cognitive load: difficulty of material itself
        
        Extraneous cognitive load: difficulty by the way material is presented
        
        To reduce cognitive load in order to encourage learning:
        
        Measure expertise & adapt presentation accordingly
        
        Reduce problem space (gap between current situation & desired goal)
        
        Reduce split-attention effect (use multiple sources of visual info)
        
        Take advantage of auditory & visual channels in working memory
    - - 3rd level of memory, stored memories, unlimited & permanent storage of info [2 types]
        
        Explicit memory: memory with conscious recall
        
        Implicit memory: memory without conscious recall
      - Improved by schemas (classification of things), organization & elaboration
  - - - Interests
        [2 types]
        
        Individual Interests: prior personal interests
        
        Situational Interests: due to environmental factors
        
        Increase situation interests by:
        
        Asking intriguing questions that evoke situation interest
        
        Change teaching techniques (e.g. team-based learning, demos, stories, scenarios)
    - - Helps learners' process of learning (encoding, storage & retrieval) & info to get retained in memory
      - When learners get distracted:
        
        Cognitive cost
        
        Takes longer to complete tasks
        
        Impairs encoding & long-term memory
        
        Negative impact on student performance
  - - - Difficulties are desirable because they help with encoding, consolidation & retrieval
        
        Encoding: learner pays more attention = more encoding & creating memory traces
        
        Consolidation: when you learn something new, you're more in REM sleep (benefit storage)
        
        Retrieval: retrieval is strengthened through challenges
    - - Massed Practice: learning over short period of time (cramming), repetitive practice of same task
        
        Problem: massed practice = blocked practice (practice in same sequence)
        
        Result: temporary learning, will forget easily or soon after material is retrieved
      - Spaced Practice: learning spread over a longer period of time
        
        Spaced Practice is more effective than Massed Practice because:
        
        Memory consolidation (storage) during sleep
        
        Create schemas, connect to other things
        
        Breaks between learning make you work harder to recall info (active recall)
        
        Result: allows greater learning & build stronger memory
        
        Interleaved practice encourages periodic retrieval (strengthens neural connections)
      - Interleaved Practice & Variation: mixing together different topics or forms of practice
        
        Varied practice: helps learners access changing situations (broad schemata)
        
        Result: adds cognitive load and takes longer but it better memory & application
        
        Interleaved Practice ≠ Multitasking
        
        Interleave Practice: mixing up tasks but doing it separately
        
        Multitasking: doing 2/+ tasks at the same time
        
        Repeated use of info is key to keeping pathways strong & strong retrieval cues to reactive memories
      - Retrieval Practice
        
        Retrieval practice is a more powerful learning strategy than repeated review & rereading
        
        Learners attempt to retrieve what they have learned from their memory (e.g. using flashcards)
        
        Form of Retrieval Practice: Reflection
        
        Your thought process is recoded in working memory so the improvement is better attached in your memory & changing your schemas
        
        Ask: “What happened? What did I do? What would I change next time?”
  - - - Past performance experience –> what influences self-efficacy the most
      - Vicarious experience (observing): observed performance & experiences of others like oneself in a similar situation
      - Social persuasion: verbal encouragement or discouragement about a person's ability to perform
      - Imaginal experience: person's use of their imagination to envision their success at a task
      - Physical & emotional stress: how one experiences physical sensations & emotional states when facing the task or challenge
    - - Have brain breaks and not overwork yourself as it will decrease confidence and therefore, unable to achieve goals
      - Set attainable goals and you accomplish that goal, celebrate your success
  - - - To overcome a bad habit, you need to identify the habit and factors that trigger (i.e. the cue)
    - - Because of the brain’s reward system: when we feel pleasure as we do something we enjoy
      - Habit loop governs any habit [3 elements]
        
        Cue: triggers the kick off the habitual behaviour (e.g. envioronment)
        
        Routine: the habits or repeated behavior
        
        Rewards: outcome of the behaviour that encourages you to repeat the behaviour
    - - A behaviour that has been repeated until it has become automatic
  - - - Formal learning (Didactics)
        
        Learning where objectives are planned and taught by an instructor, e.g. attending lecture
      - Informal learning (Discovery)
        
        Learning in a non-formal environment, e.g. studying on your own at home, watching YouTube
      - Social learning (Discourse)
        
        Learning from non-professional instructor by interacting with others, e.g. group study session
      - Experiential learning (Doing)
        
        Learning from work or application, e.g. Science labs
  - - - Job aid: tool to help learners externally through activities of directing and guiding performance
      - Job Aid helps by:
        
        Reminding learners how to do tasks
        
        Preventing errors
        
        Takes border off memory as environment is aiding
- - - - Examples
        
        Watson: Little Albert
        
        Pavlov: Salivating Dogs experiment
    - - Negative Reinforcement
        
        Take away something, increases behavior
      - Positive Punishment
        
        Add something, decreases behavior
      - Negative Punishment
        
        Take away something, decreases behavior
      - Positive Reinforcement
        
        Add something, increases behavior
  - - - Outcome Expectancy
        
        Belief that specific actions will bring about a desired result/outcome
      - Efficacy Expectancy
        
        Belief that ability to do action can bring about desired result/outcome
    - - Attainment Value
        
        Personal importance
      - Intrinsic Value
        
        Personal enjoyment
      - Instrumental/Utility Value
        
        In relation to goals
      - Cost Value
        
        Negative aspects of task
- - - - Distinctiveness: unusual events get picked up (Flashbulb memory – exact memory)
      - Recoding: take & convert info in a way that makes sense & associate to you better
    - - Memory Trace (Engram): change in nervous system = our experience
      - Consolidation: neural changes to create memory trace of an experience
    - - Available: all info stored in memory
      - Accessible: info we are able to retrieve
      - Encoding Specificity Principle: effectiveness of retrieval cues
  - - - Declarative knowledge: knowing about
      - Procedural knowledge: knowing how
      - Conditional knowledge: knowing when & why
    - - Planning: involves deciding how much time to give a task
      - Monitoring: awareness of "how I'm doing?"
      - Evaluating: make judgments about processes & outcomes of thinking & learning, ask "should I change strategies?"
    - - Metacognitive Feedback: boosts learning by providing an explanation after retrieval that indicates whether a student was correct/incorrect = this allows one to understand their own learning progress
      - Ongoing Feedback: help student judge how well they are performing & areas that need further support to achieve desired performance
      - Elaborative Feedback: allows students to learn the correct answer & why it's correct = help with transfer
      - Encourage mistakes
        
        Why are errors good for learning?
        
        Revisit the material
        
        Filling in knowledge gaps
        
        Deeper understanding of the material
        
        Reflection on thought process
        
        Encourage retrieval practice