The influence of culture and media on gender roles

Cross-cultural research is noted for its valuable contribution to nature-nurture debate

i.e. if specific gender-role behaviour appears to be consistent across different cultures we might conclude that this represents an innate, biological difference between male & female

on the other hand, if we find some gender-role behaviours are culturally specific we may assume that the influence of shared norms and socialisation is decisive ( as suggested by SLT )

one of earliest cross-cultural studies of gender roles was carried out by Margaret Mead (1935) of cultural groups in Papua New Guinea.

Arapesh tribe were gentle and responsive (similar to the stereotype of femininity in industrialised societies)

Mundugumore tribe were aggressive and hostile (similar to stereotype of masculinity in industrialised societies)

Tchambuli women were dominant and they organised village life, men were passive and considered to be 'decorative' (the reverse of the stereotype in industrialised societies)

suggests may not be direct biological relationship between sex and gender & gender roles may be culturally determined.

in Mead's later work, she conceded that she had underestimated the universal nature of many gender-typical behaviours, however she went on to argue extent to which innate behaviours are expressed is largely the result of cultural norms

David Buss (1995) found consistent patterns in mate preference (a kind of gender role behaviour) in 37 countries across all continents

in all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness within a partner

also study by Robert Munroe (1975) revealed that in most societies division of labour is organised along gender lines (with men typically the 'breadwinners' and women often the 'nurturers')

P: influence of culture on changing gender roles is supported by evidence
E: Geert Hofstede 2001 argues in industrialised cultures, changing status and expectation of women are a function of their increasingly active role in workplace & away from domestic sphere. this has led to breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies. in traditional societies women still occupy role of house-maker as result of social, cultural and religious pressures
E: strength- suggests gender roles are very much determined by cultural context

P: Mead's cross-cultural research has been criticised
E: she was accused of making generalisations based on short period of study. Derek Freeman 1983 conducted follow-up study of people from Papua New Guinea after Mead's investigation. he argued Mead's findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of her ppts & her preconceptions of what she would find had influenced her reading of events - example of observer bias
and ethnocentrism
E: weakness- suggests Mead's interpretations may not have been objective and calls into question the conclusion that she drew

media provide role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate

children are likely to select role models who are the same gender as they are and who engage in stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour (as this is more likely to be reinforced)

evidence of media providing very clear gender stereotypes which are quite rigid - men are 'independent, ambitious advice-givers' whereas women are depicted as 'dependent, unambitious advice-seekers' (Bussey and Bandura 1999)

similarly study of TV adverts by Adrian Furnham and Elena Farragher (2000) found men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles with professional contexts whereas women often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings

suggests media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning gender-appropriate behaviours

media does more than confirm gender-typical behaviour. it may also give info to men & women in terms of likely success, or otherwise, of adopting these behaviours

seeing others perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases child's belief that they're capable of carrying out such behaviours in future (what Bandura referred to as self-efficacy)

one study analysed attitudes of people in India who had watched programme designed to challenge deep-rooted gender stereotypes (Mitra et al. 201)

programme was a detective drama which ran for 78 episodes. girls who watched programme were more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home than non-viewers

P: research into media influence on gender roles has a theoretical basis
E: cultivation theory argues more time individuals spend 'living' n media world, more likely they are to believe this reflects social reality. Bradley Bond and Kristin Drogos (2014) found positive correlation between time spent watching reality TV programme Jersey Shore and Permissive attitudes towards casual sex. effect was still found to be true when researchers controlled for influence of such factors as existing sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religious beliefs
E: strength - suggests media 'cultivates' perception of reality and this affects gender behaviour

P: may not be casual relationship between gender roles and media
E: Kevin Durkin (1985) argues even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages. in fact, norms within the child's family may be the bigger determinant on the child's gender attitudes and behaviour. if media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family then these are likely to be reinforced in the child's mind. if not then such representations are likely to be rejected
E: weakness - suggests that media influences are secondary to other influences, such as family