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Confrontation and Cooperation 1963-1972 - Coggle Diagram
Confrontation and Cooperation 1963-1972
Sino- Soviet split/ Triangle Policy
Cuban missile crisis- Chinese criticism
Mao criticised Russia for backing down and claimed that the USSR had slipped back into capitalism
Khrushchev responded by saying Mao's policies would lead to nuclear war
Criticised Soviet foreign policy and unfitness of Moscow for leadership of socialist sphere
Mao unleashed Propaganda attack
Sino- Indian border skirmishes and 1962 Sino-Indian war
Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theatres
Both US and SU didn't send assistance as during 16-28th Oct 62 CMC
Couldn't agree on disputed territory Chinese launched offensives across the McMahon Line 20th Oct 1962- alongside CMC
After this, USSR offered support and aid to India
India initated Forward Policy- placed outposts along Chinese-indian border and along eastern portion of a Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese premier Zhou Enali in 1959
China declared a ceasefire 20th November 1962- withdrew its claimed 'line of actual control'
Series of border incidents after 1959 Tibetan uprising when india granted asylum to Dalai Lama
Origins of Sino- Soviet split 1956- Khrushchev's secret speech, attitude towards Poland and Hungary
Mao perceived that the Soviet economy was being allowed to fall behind, uprisings had taken place in Europe, and Khrushchev was seeking peace with imperialism.
1959 Camp David Talks Mao felt Khrushchev was too accommodating to Western demands as he refused to help China develop nukes- previous committment 1957- nov 1964 china get bomb
By 70s all efforts to reconcile failed- China resented being viewed as the junior in the alliance/inferior
Accused SU of being revisionist
feb 1956 khrushchev's sceret speech condemned stalin- mao saw it as attack at him-
Great Leap Forward 1958
Mao's attempt to modernise China's economy
Seconf 5 year plan to last from 1958 to 1963
Reformed into series of communes to develop agriculture and industry- communes contained 5000 families- didn't work for themselves anymore
by end of 1958 700 million had been placed into 26,000 communes
Had to introduce rationing- 20 million died of starvation between 1959-62
Mao stepped down in 1959
Advisers from USSR that arrive 1956 said this was impractical and harmful to Chinese economy- July 1960 they left
Encouraged to set up back yard production plants- 600,000 backyard furnaces which produced steel for the communes- added 11 million tonnes to China's annual total
Problems began 1959- harvest only 170 millions of grain leding to starvation- harvets of 1960 144 million tonnes- 9 million starved to death in 1960
Cultural revolution- Impact on Sino- Soviet relations
Severed contact between USSR and most of rest of world
Crippled the economy- gangs of students and Red guards attacked those wearing bourgeois clothes and party official murdered
1800 lost lives in Beijing in Aug and Sept 1966 alone
Between 500,000 to 2 million lost lives in Cultural Revolution
Schools, universities, churches, libraries, homes, shops closed, ransakced or destroyed
Little Red Book- official handbook for Red Guard life- more than a billion copies printed in 60s
Began May 1966- decade of political and social chaos to use Chinese masses to reassert control over the Communist party
Isolated China from USSR more
Designed to restore ideological correctness and identify ideological deviants
Sino-US relations begin to improve 1969-1972
Nixon’s arrival in the Soviet Union in Feb 1972, first visit by an American President since Roosevelt attended the Yalta summit 27 years earlier
Ping Pong diplomacy April 1971- US ping pong team invited to Beijing
Artichoke approach- gradually remove restrictions layer by layer- china got bomb more powerful- july 1969 US removed some trade controls and travel restrictions
Mao saw USSR as greater threat so made alliance with US to prevent threat from both/ immediate threat from USSR
July 1971 Kissinger visit Beijing- agreed to set up presidential visit and SIno-American summit early 1972
China saw US as aggressively imperialist and US saw China as more communist than USSR
Chinese mistrusted American detente with USSR
Nixon successfully opened diplomacy with Communist powers- agreed neither should seek dominance of Asia-Pacific region and the opposing of other countries that seek such dominance
Ussuri border dispute
USSR reatliated by bombarding Chinese troops in Manchuria and Zhenbao Islan (Ussuri river)-Chinese 800 casualties, Soviets only 60
Called Zhenbao Island by Chinese and Damansky Island by Soviets- 1964 preliminary agreement USSR would hand it to China
March 2nd 1969 Soviet and Chinese came to conflict- both claimed other attacked first- Soviets 31 dead and 14 wounded
After series of further clashes both prepared for nuclear confrontation
Tension along Ussuri river border with 658,000 Soviet troops and 814,000 Chinese troops
Soviet Premier visited Beijing from funeral of Ho Chi Minh and cooled the situation- border dispute suspended but both continued military build up
Chinese attitude towards Prague Spring
Accused Soviets of colluding with Americans and acting in a neo-imperialist manner
SIno Soviet split was threatening to divide the entire socialist bloc in 2
Normalisation of US-Sino relations 1978-79
For China US' support for Taiwan was interference in China's internal affairs
December 1978 China and US reached agreement on Taiwan, Xiaoping conceded on China's demand that US should cease to aid Taiwan militarily and assured US that Taiwan would be resolved peacefully
Formal diplomatic relations between China and US agreed and in effect from 1st January 1979
This gave China access to US-dominated global markets
President Nixon's policies in Vietnam
The extension of the war into Cambodia and Laos
Cambodia
North Vietnamese backed anti-Nol communist movement Khmer Rouge led by Pol Pot
Nixon feared communist regime in Cambodia as Khmer Rouge, N.Vietnam and Vietcong pushed towards capital Phnom Penh March 1970
March 1970 Prince Sihanouk overthrown by Pro US governent General Lon Nol
Communist Cambodia would undermine Vietnamisation as US forces would be needed to counter pro North assault on South from Cambodia
Hoped it would destroy Ho Chi Minh trail and force into peace agreement+ compensate for Vietnamisation
If forces in Cambodia Nixon would have to show commitment to South- resulted in South Vietnamese forces with US air support and border raids into Cambodia
March 1969 Operation Menu- Nixon bombing offensive of Cambodia safe to North+Vietcong
However this was negated by announcement later that month with 150,000 US troops withdrawn from South in 1 year
Laos
Highlighted weakness of ARVN and leadership- leaders more interested in pleasing Thieu than winning battles
Theiu ordered forces stopped when 3000 casualties reached- only got halfway to Laos before retreating
Feb 1971 Operation Lam Son 719-30,000 ARVN troops attacked and disrupt supply lines but North superior force- ARVN withdrew
Showed ARVN only had chance of matching North while it had US air support- but chances slim
Congress had banned US ground troops entering Laos or Cambodia so assault in Laos would be by S.Viet by US air support
Invasion spurred north to an offensive rather than defensive position
1972 Nixon fired communist push- wanted to disable Ho Chi Minh trail could stall support North were dependent on
Strategy of Vietnamisation increasingly failing to move toward Peace with honour
Relations with China - Sino-Soviet Split
By 1970 Mao realised couldn't confront SU and US and suppress internal disorder- decided SU were bigger threat so opened dialogue with US
July 1971 Kissinger made secret visit to Beijing for visit by Nixon in Feb 72
By 1965 split established fact- severed all contact through Cultural Revolution
China had accused USSR of revisionism
By June 1960 split became public when Khrushchev and Zhen openly clashed
Ussuri river border dispute, almost led to war between 2 in 1969
1959 Camp David- SU refused to honour earlier agreement to develop nukes in China and help in border dispute with India
1970s all efforts to reconcile USSR and China had failed- China would be the junior in alliance and resented this
Began later 50s- China worked with Soviet advisers who encouraged them to follow Russian model of development with emphasis on heavy industry funded by taxes from peasantry
Vietnamisation
Vietnamisation was rushed with US conducting the war- made ARVN dependent on US- Officer selection based on Thieu's regime, ARVN casualty increased
ARVN remained an ineffecitve fighting force
ARVN supported May-Oct Operation Linebacker with 150,000 tons of bombs dropped on North- boosted morale of ARVN
Nixon met Theiu June 1969 to explain the Vietnamisation policy- US presence would remain until negotiated settlement reached
1972 Spring Offensive tested Vietnamisation- ARVN resisted offensive with 8000 casualties but North suffered 5 times this
South vietnamese troops increased to 1 million in 1970 but ARVN efficiency, leadership and courage didn't improve so vietnamisation had little effect
June 1969 543,000 US troops decreased by june 1972 to 47,000
Opposed LBJ failure of Americanisation in Vietnam- Vietnamisation withdrew US forces and replaced by S Vietnam forces alongside their strengthening
The beginning of the Paris Peace Talks
Nixon wanted peace with honour and SV as independent non communist- N told by china to negotiate, USSR wanted united socialist Vietnam
Nixon saw important for China to be included
Initial talks died as Johnson committed to bombing of North as wanted Saigon rid of communism and N out of S
October 1972- ceasefire in Jan 1973- each side keep area they occupied at time of ceasefire- within 60 days US withdraw forces and POW ecxchanged, free election in SV
South opposed by Oct 1968 negotiations if NLF/Vietcong were represented- Johnson feared N weren't committed
27th january 1973 Paris Peace agreement ratified- US forces left by March 1973
Started May 1968-73 - talks stalled over whether US would commit to stopping N.Vietnam
US failed to provide promised aid so North escalated forces in 1974- 21st April 1975 Thieu resigned and 30th April SV surrendered- communists won unified communist vietnam
Johnson's policies and approach to Vietnam 1964-68
TURNING POINT 7th August 1964- congress gave power to J to take whatever action necessary to resist attack on US forces in Vietnam
Johnson allowed to send US troops to Vietnam without official war declaration
August 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution- attack on US naval vessel by N.Vietnam- 4th August Johnson ordered bombing of NV naval bases
in 1964 election seen as peaceful candidate- but was waiting till won to carry out opponents plans- willing to do anything to prevent NLF winning in South
Continued Kennedy's approach by increasing military advisers form 16,300 to 23,300 and counterinsurgency
Feb 1965 Operation Rolling Thunder after attack on US helicopter base Pleiku- bombing campaign 1965-1968 start of americanisation
Jan 1964 OPLAN 34A- progressively increasing pressure- sending of Asian mercenraies into North to kidnap/kill communist officials
March 2nd 1965- 2nd march 1968 cost 1 billion, 1 million tonnes of bomb dropped- 100/200,000 civilians died
Initial policy quick victory with committing US-win war without becoming Americanised
March 1965 first US troops arrived in VIetnam- by July 75,000 ground troops- rejected north proposals after speech of ORT as didn't want communist Vietnam
Opposition and war protests against Johnson strategies- announced wouldn't be a candidate for 1968 election
Cooperation
The Moscow Test Ban Treaty, August 1963
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water
after years of negotiations between the powers- idea initially proposed by Soviet in 50s
France and China refused to sign the agreement and France continued to test in South pacific into the 90s and China till 96
Signified the understanding of the danger of nuclear technology- first collective agreement to establish limitations on the nuclear arms race
Signed by US, USSR and UK- allowed further agreements by other countries to show international commitment to limiting nukes
The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, July 1968
Led to introduction of Non Proliferation Treaty which included Britain, US and USSR checking the spread of nukes
This allowed signatories to develop research and use of nukes for peaceful purposes
October 1964 China tested first nuclear bomb
Established non nuclear states wouldn't be able to establish nukes by forming alliances with those states- wouldn't share tech
1967 McNamara persuaded Johnson to delay developing of ABM system- USSR reluctant to include ABM system in weapon negotiations- US developed MIRVS, Soviets brought to bargaining table and ABM weren't designed to stop multiple warheads SO LOST ADVANTAGE
Most countries within UN became signatories between 1968 and 1970
By late 60s lack of parity and equality between 2 as Soviets gained supremacy in defence system- developed Anti Ballistic Missiles- if one could destroy the other nuclear ability MAD no longer effective
France and China didn't sign until 1992 but had privately pledged to adhere in 1968
The Washington-Moscow ‘hot line' 1963
June 1963 direct communication between US and USSR
Prior to this leaders had to wait for phone calls to go through a series of exchanges before they could converse
Only to be used in emergency situations
Aimed to avoid delays that occurred during Cuban missile crisis
New spirit of cooperation
neither JFK or Khrushchev used the hot line
Cut back in materials for nuclear weapons
Relaxing of tensions (detente) would allow both to focus on domestic affairs rather than the arms race
August 68 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia and Johnson not seeking re-election Nov 68 halted discussions
Wars they were engaged in were primarily guerrilla war and nukes were useless
Nixon's election in 69 and resolution of Czechoslovakia crisis led to SALT beginning
Would be mutually beneficial economically to both sides
For nixon this was attempt to improve US international position
Other countries pressured USSR and US to decrease nuclear weapons- nuclear attack would have wide reaching impact
For brezhnev opportunity to focus on internal affairs
Attitudes of Khruschev and Kennedy after the Cuban Missile Crisis
Kennedy
Director of NSC net evaluation sub committee gave annual report summer 1963 stating if there was nuclear war the 2 countries would have combined 93 million casualties
Outcome was the idea of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)- stated that beneficial for US and USSR to have nuclear equality
JFK therefore had to ensure no spread of nukes to volatile countries- in 1963 only US, USSR, UK and France had nuclear powers
Began negotiations with other nuclear powers with hope of preventing further use but his assassination in Nov 63 delayed these talks
Khrushchev
Presented his withdrawal from Cuba as a triumph- still interested in peaceful coexistence but had to show strong anti western position to keep dominance over China and Communist world
Pravda called him calm and wisdom- asset for Soviet diplomacy saving world from nuclear catastrophe
Open to US Soviet relationships based on mutual restrain rather than brinkmanship- also important due to Sino Soviet split
Ideas of limiting nukes in other countries and how nukes could be tested were areas where Khrushchev and JFK agreed
Khrushchev couldn't see this through as ousted from power October 1964
Pressures on the USSR
The Brezhnev Doctrine, Nov 1968
Brezhnev expanded upon the responsibility of communist states to intervene to protect the good of the whole communist community.
Brezhnev also defined what deviation from communism would lead to.
‘...each Communist Party is responsible not only to its own people, but also to all the socialist countries, to the entire communist movement...’
Less tolerant of dissent at home and in Eastern Europe than it had been during Khrushchev’s era
Brezhnev era was viewed a time of Soviet reasserting itself as leader of communist world.
Brezhnev believed that economic progress was they key to stability in the Eastern Bloc countries
Crushing of Prague Spring
Dubcek's actions
Eliminated press censorship which therefore exposed E.Europe to the possibility of democratic infection
April 1968 announced the Action Programme which stated the Communist's party determination to achieve socialism according to a distinct Czechoslovakian path
To do so, the government needed to allow: freedom of speech, recognition of Israel, freedom of economic enterprises, increased rights of autonomy for politically repressed
Dubcek reassured Russia that Czechoslovakia would remain loyal to the Warsaw Pact- Action Programme called for shift in economic priorities away form heavy industry and towards consumer goods
Prague Spring- timing of reforms, sense of renewal and hope in Czechoslovakia- USSR wanted to see how far reforms would go
Due to lack of opposition to Action Programme reformers: ended press censorship, planned to open borders to the West, began discussions on a trade agreement with West Germany
USSR actions
Leaders of USSR, Bulgaria, E.Germany, Hungary and Poland met 14-15th July and expressed concerns of their reforms
20th August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia. Dubcek and 3 other leaders arrested and sent to Moscow
To intimidate Dubcek, Warsaw Pact countries conducted military exercises in Czechoslovakia June 1968
Czechoslovakians didn't fight Russians- instead stood in front of tanks and put flowers in soldiers' hair
NATO didn't feel threatened but USSR had violated the sovereignty and integrity of Czechoslovakia-
Warsaw Pact faced no international action- China and Romania protested in places
The crisis in Czechoslovakia, 1968 up to Prague Spring
October 1964 Khrushchev ousted from power by group of party insiders led by Brezhnev
Had been a prosperous member of the Eastern Bloc but in 1963 negative growth was recorded- leading them to reconsider its relationship to the Communist party
1966 Sike argued for political reform and his arguments were gaining support- but their communist party wouldn't let this happen
Obvious choice for USSR was Dubcek as he was a committed communist, on good terms with Brezhnev, aimed to create popular form of communism
USSR felt changes needed to take place in Czechoslovakian leadership to maintain the communist government
Signals of revolt began in 60s with economist Sik proposed reforms to the planned economy that opposed communist ideals
Dubcek wanted to get rid of the most repressive aspects of communist rule, reform economy and allow more cultural freedom
Dubcek turned out to be an advocate of political reform- not what USSR expected and began replacing key officials with those who wanted reform, without consulting the USSR