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Synoptic Strand 1- Conscience - Coggle Diagram
Synoptic Strand 1- Conscience
Religious Views
conscience is innate & comes from God
Old Testament
experience God calling them to live according to his will or law
experience him probing or judging their hearts
'O Lord, you have searched me and you know me. You know when i sit and when i rise; you perceive my thoughts from afar. You discern my going out and my lying down; you are familiar with all my ways. Before a word is on my tongue you know it completely, O Lord'- Psalm 139 v 1-4
New Testament
Jesus= taught followers to have pure heart
'God blesses those whose hearts are pure, for they will see God'- Matthew 5 v 8
'What goes into a man's mouth does not make him 'unclean', but what comes out of his mouth, that is what makes him 'unclean'... the things that come out of the mouth come from the heart, and these make a man 'unclean' '- Matthew 15 v 11,18
General
2 roles- To direct (legislative) & To judge (judicial)
Paul uses Greek term- Suneidesis- translated as 'conscience' or 'heart'
taught that all people, christian or not, know what is right and wrong- knowledge of what is good is written in our hearts:
'When outsiders who have never heard of God's law follow it more or less by instinct, they confirm its truth by their obedience. They show that God's law is not something alien, imposed on us from without, but woven into the very fabric of our creation. There is something deep within them that echos God's yes and no, right and wrong'
for Paul conscience is Universal Knowledge of God's Law
Conscience- an aptitude, faculty, intuition or judgement that assists in distinguishing right from wrong
Early Church Views
Jerome
'spark of conscience'
limitations- "no sense of guilt or shame for sins"
means by which we discern sin; has limitations
believed that the conscience was not a reliable guide to morality for all people as it could be misinformed or misguided
Augustine
universal- everyone has ability to hear voice of God
should not be questioned
voice of God speaking to us which we must seek within ourselves
not always reliable as some people chose not to seek, consult or listen to it
conscience only truly effective when illuminated by God's grace
only christians who are truly aware of God will receive his grace and be able to act as God intended
Jenkins comments Augustine believed- "God endows each human being with a conscience whereby he or she may know the moral law. However, this knowledge is insufficient... God's grace illuminates the soul by a revelation of God's goodness"
Aquinas
faculty of human reason to discern right from wrong, not something that is innate' the Synderesis Rule; not infallible; the responsibility to train and inform conscience; the authority of conscience
"was the mind of man making moral decisions"
2 essential parts: Synderesis & Conscentia
Synderesis- innate knowledge of right and wrong e.g. Primary Precepts
Conscienta- deriving how to act in ways that uphold the Primary Precepts e.g. application of Secondary Precepts
failure to follow conscience is evil- "conscience is the dictate of reason... he who acts against his conscience always sins"
however possible to misinterpret conscience if not acquired enough prudence
Prudence- virtue of reasoning in moral matters, balancing our needs against needs of others
lack of prudence leads to breakdown in communication between synderesis & conscienta- misinterpretation & moral failure
Vault Analogy
is moral vault which contains moral knowledge e.g. Primary precepts- Synderesis
to open vault need key- Prudence
hands that open vault, take moral knowledge & apply it- Conscienta
"Man's reasoning is a kind of movement which begins with the understanding of certain things which are naturally known as immutable principles without investigation. It ends in the intellectual ability by which we make judgements on the basis of those principles...."- Aquinas
Vincibly & Invincibly
Vincibly- through own fault, involving factors that, if they had applied their reason sufficiently they should have been aware of
Invincibly- through no fault of their own, involving factors beyond their control
Aquinas held Reason in highest esteem- "Reason in man is rather like God in the world"
Famously Aquinas claimed- 'To disparage the dictate of reason is equivalent to condemning the command of God'
Development of Christian Views
Butler (1692-1752)
its intuitive nature, the role of the conscience in directing people towards benevolent (loving others) actions; the authority of the conscience
Our Natural Guide
'magisterially exerts itself' spontaneously 'without being consulted'- is something authoritative, automatic and innate about way it works
"conscience does not only offer itself to show us the way we should walk in, but it likewise carries its own authority with it, that it is our natural guide, the guide assigned us by the Author of our nature"
humans influenced by 2 basic principles- Self-love & Benevolence
conscience directs us towards focusing on happiness of others and away from focusing on ourselves
Ultimate Authority
conscience should have ultimate authority overall our actions
"likewise as being superior; as from its very nature manifestly claiming superiority over all others.. Had it strength, as it has right; had it power, as it has manifest authority, it would absolutely govern the world"
if conscience commands something must obey unquestioningly- "it is our duty to walk in that path and follow this guide without looking about to see whether we may not possibly forsake them with impunity"
Bowie argues that Butler's view of an intuitive conscience that never errs could be used to justify all sorts of acts
Newman (1801-1890)
"To the Pope, if you please,- still to conscience first, and to the Pope afterwards"
conscience is comparable to inner voice- "voice of God" completely distinct from our will or desires
innate principle planted in us before we had the ability to reason
"My nature feels towards the voice of conscience as towards a person. When I obey it, I feel a satisfaction. When I disobey it, a soreness- just like that which I feel pleasure or offending some revered friend.... An echo implies a voice, a voice implies a speaker. That speaker I love and revere"
conscience more than simply 'a law of the mind', since comes from God
does not invent the truth, but at its best it detects truth
" If, as is the case, we feel responsibility, are ashamed, are frightened, at transgressing the voice of conscience, this implies there is One to whom we are responsible, before whom we are ashamed, whose claims upon us we fear"
Modern Christian Views
Joseph Fletcher
no such thing as conscience in terms of voice of God
conscience no more than thinking process involved in making moral decisions
Aquinas- "the reason making moral judgements"
in relation to Situation Ethics, described conscience as a 'function, not a faculty'
e.g. is something we do rather than something we have
The Catholic Church
conscience is voice of God, but concede must be developed & educated if to be sufficient moral guide
"Deep within his conscience man discovers a law which he has not laid upon himself but which he must obey... For man has in his heart a law inscribed by God... His conscience is man's most secret core and his sanctuary. There he is alone with God whose voice echoes in the depths... Conscience must be informed and moral judgement enlightened"
Secular Views
moral duty to do what is right regardless of consequences
agreed with Aquinas regarding role of reason in moral decision making but did not accept that the moral law consists of following God's plan for creation
Moral Law consists of Categorical Imperative & Practical Imperative
Categorical Imperative
aims to help people work out what behaviour is morally acceptable and what is not
"There is only one categorical imperative. It is: act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law"
e.g. if action right for me, right for everyone, if wrong for me, then wrong for everyone
Practical Imperative
"So act that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in the person of every other human being, never merely as a means, but always at the same time as an end"
e.g. never acceptable to treat human being as means to end/ exploit for own cause
sensitive to helping us fulfil our moral duties in line with the categorical & practical imperatives
conscience not thing that's acquired, but is something that is within every human from birth
duty concerning conscience is to cultivate awareness of it & obey it
Secular Views on Conscience
Kant
german philosopher
wrote in Groundwork to the Metaphysic of Moral (1785)
"conscience is not a thing to be acquired, and it is not a duty to acquire it; but every man, as a mortal being, has it originally within him. The duty here is only to cultivate our conscience, to quicken our attention to the voice of the internal judge, and to use all means to secure obedience to it, and is thus our indirect duty"
Freud
Superego- set of moral codes given to us by outside influences, is our moral code/ conscience & often in conflict with the ID
Ego- conscience self-seen by outside world
ID- unconscience self part of mind containing basic drives & repressed memories, amoral, not concerned with rights or wrongs only itself
conscience clearly connected with sense of guilt we feel when go against conscience
conscience is simply a construct of the mind- in religious people this would be in response to perceptions of God & in non-religious people it would be their responses to externally imposed authority
did not believe in any absolute moral law and held that all our moral codes, thus content of conscience- shaped by experiences
culturally dependant & explains varities of moral codes that are to be found in different societies
If superego internalises disapproval of others & creates guilty conscience which grows into an internal force regardless of an individual rational thought or reflection, is it not just a form of moral control which traps us in its grasp?
Fromm
all humans are influenced by external authorities, who apply rules and punishments for breaking them, rules then internalised by the individual
guilty conscience- result of displeasing authority
disobedience produces guilt, which in turn weakens our pwoer & makes us more submissive to authority
saw humanistic conscience being much healthier- assess and evaluates our behaviour
authority tends to do all in its power to break our will
begin to break free from external authority. They are now capable of judging their 'functions as human beings' and have knowledge of their respective 'success or failure in the art of living'
Piaget
child's moral development grows and the ability to reason morally depends on cognitive development
Heteronomous Morality- when conscience is still immature, rules are not to be broken and punishment is expected if a rule is broken. Consquences of an action will show if it is right or wrong
Autonomous Morality- when children develop their own rules and understand how rules operate in and help society. The move towards autonomous morality occurs when the child is less dependant on others for moral authority
Other Aspects of Human Experience
Ignoring Conscience- Joseph Fritzl
held daughter Elizabeth captive in basement for 24 years- repeatedly abused, beat and raped her (ended up siring 7 children with her)
oldest child 19 when released from basement
was 18 when father trapped her
Frtizl's attempt to portray himself as someone with heart & conscience seems pitiful, if not downright cynical- "I always knew, during those 24 years that what I was doing was wrong. I must have been mad to do something like that"
lawyer tried to show human side "I am not a monster... I could have killed them"
never mentions he kept her on a leash or subjected her to non-stop rape
"his conduct during these 24 years does not indicate a person with diminished capacities"
Issue of Psychopaths- Ted Bundy
Canadian psychologist Robery Hare, defined psychopaths as "social predators who charm, manipulate, and ruthlessly plow their way through life. Completely lacking in conscience and feeling for others" goes onto say "selfishly take what they want and do as they please, violating social norms and expectations without the slightest sense of guilt or regret"
Bundy insisted he was competent- "I knew I wasn't crazy, insane, or incompetent or anything else"
Said, "I was insulted by even the suggestion by my attorneys that we should consider the defence. They knew damn well I wasn't crazy"
raped & murdered at least 36 women over course of 4 years in 1970s
attorney Polly Nelson attempted to delay death penatly by proving he wasn't mentally competent to stand trial
Directing people towards Repentance- Colin Howell
convicted of the murder of his first wife and his lovers' husband in 2010
had kept murders a secret for more than 18 years before confessing to his church elders & second wife
2009 consulted with church elders & second wife
handed himself into police & made shocking confession
following wife's death had been in finanical difficulty
told police that money was not motive for crimes. Said it was his desire to be Hazel Buchanan that led him to commit murder
Followed Conscience despite going against Moral Absolutes- Dietrich Bonhoeffer
German pastor during Nazi regime. Had strong pacifist ideals until concluded that only way to rid Europe of Nazism was to assassinate Hitler
April 1943- lutheran pastor imprisoned on charges of helping plot a murder, that of Adolf Hitler- held pacifist view
Bonhoeffer refused to accept doctrinal or other concessions of Hitler's Nietzschean ideology, e.g. the euthanasia policy. Spent April 5th 1943- October 8th 1944 in Tegel Prison in Berlin
during time in prison wrote letters & papers from prison
involvement was deliberately chosen and arguably misguided. In prison sorted out his theological views, views which his closest associates consider have been subsequently misinterpreted
Links with Early Church
Early Church Martyrs
e.g. Polycarp, Blandina & Perpetua edured persection because of aherance to faith
guided by christian faith- refused to deny faith
Tertullian
wrote in Apology that every individual should be free to worship according to dictates of conscience
"let one man worship God, another Jupiter; let one lift suppliant hands to the heavens, another to the altar of Fides.... For see that you do not give a further ground for the charge of irreligion, by taking away religious liberty, and forbidding free choice of deity, so that I may no longer worship according to my inclination, but am compelled to worship against it. Not even a human being would care to have unwilling homage rendered him"
Tertullian was preparing to the leave the established church and join the montanist movement
Edict of Milan
issued the Constantine & Licinius
allowed people to have freedom to choose religion which would let them act on their own conscience
US Constitution
warned against state establishing a state religion and giving citizens right to freely excerise own choice of religious beliefs
called The Establishment and Free Exercise Clause
people have freedom of religious conscience- can chose which to follow
Cyprian
went into hiding to pastor flock during persecution
knew it was right thing to do, even though those he served were suffering
Christian Apologists- C.S Lewis
said that our conscience is 'nothing more than the voice of God within our souls; the bridge that links the creature to the creator'
Is the Conscience a Reliable Guide?
fundamental problem with conscience is that it means different things to different thinkers- most are contradictory
Aquinas= rational process
Newman & others = Voice of God within
Freud= sense of guilt that humans have as a result of the Oedipus and Electra complexes
Piaget & Kohlberg= biological, development phenomenon
Fromm= socio-economic phenomenon
argued that if there is such a thing as an objective idea of right and wrong, then conscience cannot help moral agent find it
following conscience= no guarantee that doing right thing
people believe a certain course of action to be right at one time in the lives & then change their minds about action at later stage
Aquinas arged it is duty of everyone to inform and educate conscience
Criticisms of Conscience
Nietzsche
asserts that concepts like right or wrong do not exist
life about ability of individual to control own life= Power of the Will
no need for conscience
Bentham
regards conscience as greatest inhibition when comes to issue of greatest good of greatest number
e.g. hermits whose conscience leads them to reject wealth & live as paupers, are condemned because have misguided idea of pleasure
conscience is therefore product of false understanding of what pleasure is
Karl Marx
argued life about group and not the individual
as conscience as part of individualism
conscience way of exerting social control
conscience determined obedience to church's laws
in feudal society, thcurch & nobility controlled thought processes of peasents
Richard Dawkins
'The Selfish Gene', that humans are controlled by genes which exist to help human species survive
Dwakins argue that evolutionary process creates morals
conscience= biological process
Richard Rorty
no such things as set of universal moral values
conscience is simply a person's sense of guilt when go against own moral inclinations
Modern Understandings of Conscience
Vincent MacNamara
misleading to describe conscience as 'voice' since makes it sound like special faculty which human possess
better to see it in terms of an attitude or awareness people have that there is moral path to be followed
"it is not so much that I have a conscience- a special piece of equipment-as that I am a conscience. That is how I am, that is how I find myself. That is the basic truth about life"
way of describing conscience is based in ideas about the kind of people we are and how we 'see' the world
Richard Gula
misleading to consider conscience in terms of a series of laws
2 keys terms: Vision & Choice
conscience is ability & decision to act within structureed christian framework, seeing life as a christian vision to strive towards
Timothy O'Connell