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MORPHOLOGY, Syntax, Semantics, LANGUAGE, Acquisition Of Language,…
MORPHOLOGY
COINAGE
(Speaker create a new word to name non-existing word)
Acronym
(The first letter of a word);
Independent and many people have forgotten what they actually stand
Radar (Radio Detecting and Ranging)
Laser (Light Amplications Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
Abbreviation
CD (Compact Disc)
PC (Personal Computer)
ER (Emergency Room)
Orthographic Abbreviation
Mr.
Dr.
Clipping
(Words are cut short for clipped)
Fax.
Prof.
Blending
(Process of blending existing words)
Camcorder (Camera+Recorder)
Brunch (Breakfast+Lunch)
Edutainment (Education+Entertainment)
Eponym
(Proper names that undergo the process of coinage-expands English Vocab)
Sandwich (The Earl of Sandwich)
Jumbo (Large from Elephant's name)
Generification
(Created using specific Brand Name)
Kleenex (Facial Tissue)
Xerox (Photocopy Actions)
Compound
(Combine 2 existing words nouns, adjectives or verbs)
Homework
Sleepwalk
Back-formation
(New words created due to incorrect morphological analysis-affix removed to shorten words)
Television to Televise
Editor to Edit
Category Change
(Modification of words by changing it category to create new meaning)
Ponytails
Nouns
Verb
Metaphorical Extension
(Existing words used in another context)
Swallow
They swallow all her views but not mine.
Digest
I‟ll have to digest your views first.
Information Requires In Using Words
Its Meaning (Semantics Info)
How Individual Word is Formed (Morphological Info)
Sound & Its Sequence (Phonological Info)
Its Lexical Categories and How To Use It In Sentences ( Syntactic Info)
MORPHEMES (LINGUISTICS SIGN)
Minimal Units Of Meaning or Grammatical Functions(Greek=Morphe (Form)
Eaxmple of Morpheme
Two Morpheme
Boy+ish
Desire+able
Three Morpheme
Un+faith+ful
Science+tist+s
One Morpheme
Boy
Desire
Four Morpheme
Gentle+man+li+ness
More Than 4
Un+true+th+ful+ness
A Morpheme Consist of Sequencing Sounds Paired With Particular Meaning
TYPES OF MORPHEMES
Free Morpheme
(Can Stand Alone)
Content Words
(Describe concept, things , actions & characteristics)
Verb (Play)
Adjective (Slim)
Noun (Baby)
Adverb (Slow)
Function Words
(Carry Grammatical Function)
Determiners
Prepositions (On)
Pronouns (He)
Conjuctions
Article (A, The)
Bound Morpheme
(Attached To Base Morpheme)
Category
Derivational
(Create New Words /Change Grammatical Category of Stem Word)
Suffixes
(ly,ish)
Prefixes
(Un, dis, in, pre, ir)
Inflectional
(No New Words Produced/Show
Original Grammatical Function of Words)
Tenses (ing, ed, en)
Comparative (er,est)
Singular / Plural
Possession ('s)
Words are the most tangible elements in language
Two Meaningful Parts
Bookstore
Laptop
Less Clear Notion
Sang
Impracticality
One Meaningful Parts
Sing
Car
DEFINITION
Study of Words & Their Parts
Study About Internal Structures of A Word
Rules by Which Words are Formed
Syntax
Syntactic Category
(A group of expressions or phrases that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality)
Phrasal Category
NP/VP/Prep.P/Adj.P/Adv.P
Noun Phrase (NP)
Proper Noun
Pronoun
Can be Subject or Object
Determiner (a, the)
Formula
NP -> Det N
VP
VP -> V NP
VP -> V PP
VP -> V
S -> NP VP
PP -> P NP
Lexical Category
N/V/P/Adj/Adv/Det/Aux/Modal
Functional Category
(Concern about grammatical function rather than a descriptive meaning)
Det
(A,The)
Auxiliary
(have, has, had, be, was, and were)
Demonstrative
(This, That, These, Those)
Counting Words
(Each, Every)
Modal
(may, might, can, could, must, shall, should, will, would)
Categorization of Sentences/Clauses
Interrogative (Question)
Imperative (Command/Persuasive/Invitation/Instructions)
Declarative (Statement)
Exclamative (Exclamation)
Definition
Concern about the functional & structural relationship of elements in phrases and sentences
Concern about the structure or arrangement of component in phrase or sentences
The word order in phrases or sentences contribute to its interpretation and meaning
Recursion
Embedding (He said that...)
Coordination (And, But)
Multiple Adjunction (Handsome, Intelligent boy)
Syntactic Structure
Word in Phrase or Sentences can be grouped together to form Meaning
Forming
SYNTACTIC UNIT/CONSTITUENTS
Susunan Word to Group to form meaning
Structural Ambiguity
(The Phrase can be divided into 2 syntactic structure)
[The old man] [with a knife on the table]
[The old man with a knife] [on the table]
Clauses
(Group of words that contains Subject and Predicate)
Independent
Dependent/Subordinate
Constituents
(natural groupings or parts of a sentence)
Linguistics Test/ Constituents Test
A Movable Unit Test (Beginning of Sentences)
Jimmy will see
[the boy]
[The Boy]
will see Jimmy
Substitution with a Pronoun
Jimmy will the [the boy]
Jimmy will see [him]
Stand Alone Test
Who Will See Jimmy? - Jimmy Will See The Boy
Constituents
The Boy
Not Constituent
Will See
See The
Subject Verb Object Rule
Tree Diagram
(Phrasal Structure Tree, PS/Constituent Structure Tree)
Phrase
(a word or a group of words used as a single part of speech)
Noun Phrase (Expression)
Verb Phrase (Predicate)
Includes Phrase/Clauses/Sentences
Semantics
Types of Meaning
Social
(Convey the identity of the speaker/situation where utterances were uttered
Provide Information about social factor such as ethnicity/social status/regional origin and context
We leave now lah.
:check: Regional Origin of Speaker
:check: Speaker's Ethnicity
Hey bro!
:check: Utterance used in Informal Context
Affective
(The emotional connotation attached to words and utterances)
Stress & Intonation communicate feelings & attitudes towards utterances and contexts
Ex
Aisha who teaches the beginners class gives good explanations.
Aisha who teaches the beginners class makes her students confused
Same Sentence/ Same Context but carries diff affective meaning
Linguistic
Referential
The meaning of a word or sentence is the actual person, object, abstract notion, event or state to which the word or sentence makes reference
'Siva is sleeping on the sofa"
Sense
Explains how some expressions mean when not all expressions have referents
[
Anuar Zain is a singer
] and [
Anuar Zain is Anuar Zain]
Other Meaning
Denotative (Dictionary) - Precise
Connotative (Association of a particular word to other words) - Wide Array of word associated either negative or positive
Literal (Used to mean exactly what is written)
Figurative (Used to mean something other than written) - Symbolic/Suggested/Implied
Lexical Relationship/Relation
Synonyms
- Same Meaning
Antonym
- Same Meaning
Gradable (Subjective Opinion)
Ugly - Beautiful
Non-Gradable (Exclusive Opinion)
Man - Woman
Hyponymy
- Represent Subordinate of Hypernym
Hypernym - Colors
Hyponyms - Blue, Red, Orange
Homonymy
- Group of words share the same spelling, pronunciation but different meaning
Ambiguity
(Carries 2 Meaning)
Lexical
Structural
Part/Whole Relationship
(Not Hyponymic)
Hand - Arm
Face (Mouth/Cheek/Nose/Eyes)
Definition
Study of the meaning of language structure in systematic ways in words @ sentences
Purpose
To distinguish different ways in which language "means" (Contradictory/Anomalous/Ambiguos/Vague)
Hyponymic
Organ (Kidney/Heart/Lung/Eyes)
Lexical Semantics
(examines relationships among word meanings)
Lexical Item
(Words)
Lexical Field
(Words that share an identifiable semantic affinity)
Less Marked Words
(Common)
Marked Words
(Rare)
Metaphorical Extension
(an extension of the use of a word beyond its primary sense to describe referents that bear similarities to the word’s primary referent)
Converseness
LANGUAGE
Language & Linguistics Knowledge
Attributes that differentiate between humans and animals
Reflect One's Knowledge About
The Words
Grammatical Rules
Sound System
Linguitics Knowledge
Linguistic Competence
Refers to a person’s knowledge on how to produce sentences
Linguistics Performance
Use - Communicate - Comprehend
Characteristics of Human Languages
Displacement
Object not present/ not exists
Event in Pass/ Future
Transmission of Culture
Creativity
Vocal-Auditory Channel
Vocal type of communication from a sender to a receiver
Arbitrary
There is no particular connection between the form and the thing it refers to
Bear (Not reflect the object it represent)
Onomatopoeic (Words Pronounce Like Sound Associated)
Rule Governed
Elements of Languages
Morphology
Internal structure of words
Syntax
Ways in which words can be organized into sentences and the ways in which sentences are understood
Semantics
Meaning of language
Pragmatics
The way the meaning of an utterance may be influenced by its speakers or hearers interpret it in context
Lexicology
Established words of a language and the fixed expressions whose meanings cannot be derived from their components: idioms, clichés, proverbs
Phonology
Speech sounds
Phoenetics
Deals with sound of spoken languages
Definition
“A language is a finite system of elements and principles that make it possible for speakers to construct sentences to do particular communicative jobs” (Fasold & Linton, 2014).
:fire:
Different Aspects
Psychological State
Mental Reality- Exists in the heads of people who speak it
Social Fact
Exists not only in an individual, but in a community
Set of Structures
A language forms a system in which everything is interconnected
Collection of Outputs
A set of sentences
Knowledge of Grammar
Descriptive
Shared knowledge about grammar rules of a language that exists in speaker's mind
Basic Linguistics Knowledge
Prescriptive
Prescribe Grammatical Rules that others should follow
Acquisition Of Language
Lang Acquisition - Developmental Process, Subconscious and Creative Process
Child. Hv Innate Ability - They Do It In Stages
THEORY OF LANG. ACQUISITION
Reinforcement Theory
(Ivan Pavlov)
Learned Behavior Remains
He Proposed That A Response Could Be Conditioned By Providing Suitable Reinforcement At Right Time To Stimuli Which Were Neutral At Beginning
Right Action - Positive Reinforcement
Wrong Action - Negative Reinforcement
Stimulus-Response
Imitation Theory
(Burrhus Frederic Skinner)
Child. Produce what they heard
Learn to speak by copying utterances from surrounding
Operant conditioning
Strengthen Response Through Repetition & Correction by Adult
Cognitive Theory
(Jean Piaget)
Young Child Think in DIff Ways from Adults
Child. Born with bery basic mental structure which genetically inherited and evolving
Lang Development related to cognitive development
Innateness Hypothesis
(Noam Chomsky)
Human brain is genetically pre-programmed to learn lang
When they exposed to speech - they pick it up naturally & begin to work out the lang rules by themselves
Humans(Children) are born with innate capacity for language dev - Language Acquisition Device (LAD) - Enable them to make sense of the utterances they hear
Linguistics Universal (Rules acquired through generalizations of common grammar shared innately by all languages - Universal Grammar)
Critical-age Hypothesis
(Lennerberg)
The ability to learn native lang develops within fixed period, from birth to puberty
Beyond critical age, human cant acquire much of syntax and inflectional morphology
Plasticity (Allow a child acquire his 1st language) - Age of 2 to puberty
Unique capacity will gone once left hemisphere of brain wired in
Acquiring another lang after critical period - physiologically different and harder (Klein 1995)
Functional-Notional
(Michael Halliday)
Child. learn communicate by using gestures
Arm Raising
Pointing
Head Shaking
Making Noise
Protolanguage (Child. Lang)
Lang Acquired in social context
Conventional Words used
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
by Chomsky
Newborn baby capable of acquiring any human languages
Child with inadequate language data - acquire grammar in short life span
Innate structure common in all languages (Universal Grammar)
Universal Grammar
by Chomsky
Certain basic structure rules about language that human knw]ow without learning them
Hardwired
Specific features taught through social interaction
Theory of SLA
Input Hypothesis
Help of context, world
knowledge, or extra-linguistic information
Fluency emerges over time cant be taught directly - Provide Comprehensible Input
Learning understood input beyond his current level competence
Affective Filter Hypothesis
Natural Order Hypothesis
Acquisition of grammatical
structures proceeds in a predictable order
Acquirers of a given language tend to acquire
certain grammatical structures early, and others late
Natural Order of Grammatical Morpheme
Produce single words
String words together based on meaning and not syntax
Begin to identify elements that begin and end sentences
Begin to identify different elements within sentences and can rearrange them to produce questions
The Monitor Hypothesis
Learning - Monitor/Editor
Monitor - Utilize Learnt Knowledge & Modify Utterances from acquired knowledge
Acquisition - Initiates Utterances (Fluency)
Sufficient Time & Know Rule
Correctness > Meaning
Acquisition-Learning Distinction
Acquired System
Natural Communication & Meaningful Interaction which Speaker Focus on Communicative acts than their utterances
not consciously aware of the grammatical rules
Product of Subconscious Process
Learned
Concern About Grammar Rules
Formal Instruction & Conscious Process
Stages of Language Development
(Noam Chomsky)
Stage 3: One-word / Holophrastic Stage (1 Year-1 Year 6 Month)
Utter Single Words (Mama, Papa) based on a specific referent for various meaning - Requesting/naming object/expressing emotion
Linguistic ability more on comprehension rather than production
Stage 4: Two-word Stage (1 year 6 month- 2 year)
Utter more than single word , not utilize syntactic and morphological marker during speech production- express a number of different grammatical relations for the utterances.
Stage 2: Babbling (6 month-1 year)
Earliest Language Acquisition process & Involve development of his language ability in native language/ May Learn Language Rules
Stage 5: Telegraphic Stage (2 Year - 2 year 6 Month)
Utter More Complex Combination of words- lacking of words indicating functions (det, prepositional, auxiliaries) - lack of use of content words - few word order errors - syntactic and grammatical functions words will increase at the later stage in the development
Stage 1 : The First Sound (From Birth)
Born with ability to perceive sound (Phonemic) and producing sound if there is stimuli/ Universal Listener - Can differentiate native language
Phonology
Refer To The Study of Speech Sound
Segmenting Individual Sounds
Relate How Each Sound Differs From Other
CUP - C (Cat) / U (Cup) / P (Pray)
Description of Sounds
(Consonant)
Place of Articulation
(Where The Air Stream Most Obstructed)
Palatals
(Raising Front Part of Tongue To Palate)-Constriction
[ ʃ ] [ ʒ ] [tʃ ] [dʒ ] [ j ]
Velars
(Raised Back of Tongue To Soft Palate/Velum)
[k] [g] [ŋ ]
Interdental/Dental
(Inserting Tips of Tongue Between Teeth)
[θ ] [ð ]
(th)
Alveolars
(Tongue Raise Against Alveolar Ridge)
[t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]
Labiodental
(Upper Teeth Touch Bottom Lips )
[f] [v]
Bilabials
(Bringing Both Lips Together)
[p] [b] [m]
Uvulars
(Raising the back of the Tongue To Uvula)
[R] (French)[q] [G] (Arabic)
Glottals
(the flow of air through the open glottis, and past the tongue and lips as they prepare to pronounce a vowel sound, which always follows [h]
[ h ]
Manner of Articulation
(The Particular Way The Airstream Are Obstructed)
Voicing
(Whether Vocal Cord Vibrate or Not)
Voiced
(Vocal Throat Move/Vibrate)
/b, d, g, z, v, j, w, y, m, n, l, r, ŋ, ð, ʒ, dʒ/
Voiceless
(Quiet Sound with No Vibration in Throat. Vocal Cords Open and Loose)
/p, t, k, s, f, h, θ, tʃ /
Unaspirated
Vocal cords vibrating as soon as lips open
"Spit"
Aspirated
The vocal cords remain open for a very short time after the lips come apart to release the “p”.
“Pit”,
Timing of Vocal Cords Closure
Sounds of English Lang.
Consonants
In it Passage from Lung through the Vocal Tract
Sounds Produced by Partially or Completely Blocking Air
Dipthongs
Vowel Sounds Which Tongue Starts In One Place In Mouth & Glides To Another
bite, pout, bout, boy, toy
Vowels
Produced by passing air through diff shapes of mouth
With diff position of tongue and lips
With air stream relatively unobstructed by narrow passages except glottis
peat, pit, pet, pate, pat, put, putt, pool, poke, pot, part, port.
Auditory Perception
Vowel Height & Frontness
Lips
Rounded (Pool)
Non-Rounded (Pill
Principal Branches
Articulatory Phonetics
Focuses On Human Vocal Apparatus
Describes Sound In Term Of Their Articulation In Vocal Tract
Acoustic Phonetics
Uses The Tools Of Physics
To Study Nature of Sound Waves Produced In Human Lang.
Phonetics Alphabets
An Independent Sys to Represent Actual Sounds of Human Lang.
International Phonetics Alphabet (IPA)