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History Revision - Ela Nicholson - Coggle Diagram
History Revision - Ela Nicholson
Impacts of important people
Harvey
Some people believed Harvey was mad about blood circulation, others ignored his ideas, and some rejected it as it went against Galen's ideas, which were long-established beliefs. Some reacted in a very hostile way to Harvey's ideas.
Within his lifetime, his theories were accepted by many, but it took the University of Paris 50 years to start teaching it.
Harvey's theories needed to be built on, and further scientific research was required, e.g. blood transfusions were not a (safe) thing until 1901.
Without understanding blood circulation, many modern medical treatments would not work (e.g. blood tests for diabetes, or liver disease, or heart transplants).
For Hunter, his main impacts were the inspiration of Edward Jenner, and the Company of Surgeons' creation. This happened because, by 1745, surgeons wanted their skills to be recognised as superior to barbers, so a separate Company of Surgeons was created. This was renamed in 1800 by the King, to the Royal College of Surgeons (to oversee surgeons' training and advise government).
Pare
Many English surgeons read Pare's 'Work on Surgery'. A hand-written copy was given to the library of Barber-Surgeons of London in 1591. In 1634, it was printed in English.
A number of 16th Century English surgeons started to use Pare's Renaissance approach to surgery (to observe, question, and experiment with new ideas).
Jenner
Attitudes did change in support of vaccination. Whilst this wasn't an entirely new idea (others had done it before him), Jenner used scientific methods to prove the theories and made others take notice.
By the 1800s, doctors used his technique in America and Europe, and in 1853, the British government made smallpox vaccination compulsory.
Vesalius
Used 'Renaissance' approach, questioning the human body to overturn centuries of beliefs in Galen's anatomy.
Basis for others to learn, he showed others how to dissect and discover more about the human body (Fabricius, Fallopians, etc.).
By 1545, a book called 'Compendiosa' which copied all of Vesalius' illustrations was printed by an Italian printer who sold his book as a manual for barber-surgeons in London to learn their trade. It proved very popular with 3 editions being published between 1545 and 1559.
His link to England was that Henry VIII gave the barber-surgeons a charter in 1540 to form the Company of Barber-Surgeons (they would be given the corpses of 4 criminals to dissect each year). This created barber-surgeon standards, and controlled qualifications.
Important people One
Ambroise Pare (1510-90) learned about surgery as apprentice to his brother at a hospital in Paris, and later became a French army surgeon.
Promoted the use of ligatures (strings or threads) in amputations (cutting off a limb), and tying ligatures around individual blood vessels to stop the bleeding. Surgeons normally stopped bleeding by putting a red hot iron on the wound (cauterising). He designed the bec de corbin (crow's beak clamp) to stop bleeding. However, ligatures were slow compared to the painful cauterisation.
Designed false limbs for amputees.
Surgeons struggled to deal with gunshot wounds (as guns were a fairly new invention), and some believed they were poisonous. In 1537 during a battle, Pare ran out of oil, so he just used cream on the wounds. His patients slept well and their wounds healed quickly. In 1545, he wrote a book about new ways to treat wounds.
Produced 'Anatomie Universelle' in 1561, and 'Works on Surgery' in 1575.
Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) was born in Belgium, and was a gifted student. Studied at University of Paris, and taught by Jacob Sylvias (a great fan on Galen, a famous Greek physician of human anatomy) and then went on to be Professor of Surgery at University of Padua, Italy.
He dissected human bodies himself (not his assistants).
He researched bloodletting and discovered mistakes in Galen's writings (200 mistakes - doctors hadn't wanted to challenge the established ideas of Galen on human anatomy).
He produced illustrated anatomy books (The Fabric of the Human Body, 1543) which contained precise drawings of the human body - skeleton, nerves, veins, digestive system, and reproductive system.
His lectures were popular and encouraged dissection of the human body as a way to learn more about it and it's workings.
He was criticised for saying that Galen was wrong, and had to leave his job at Padua, but later became doctor to Emperor Charles V.
William Harvey (1578-1657) was an English doctor who studied medicine at Cambridge and Padua, Italy. He started at St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London, in 1609, and rose to the coveted position of doctor of King Charles I in 1632.
Studying human hearts (dissection), he observed slow beating hearts of cold-blooded animals and he experimented by pumping liquid the wrong way through the valves in veins - this proved that blood could only circulate one way. He observed and experimented to make conclusions.
Took him about 12 years to investigate his ideas about blood circulation before he published his findings - De Motu Cordis (1628). Despite all his efforts, Harvey still had questions he couldn't answer.
In 1616, he commented on blood moving in a constant circuit, driven by the heart (this was a new idea and went against Galen's ideas) Prior to this, Galen's ideas were accepted - he said new blood was made in the liver.
Important people Two
John Hunter went to work at age 20 with his older brother in London, who had started an anatomy school. John was interested in dissection and anatomical research (he even robbed graves for his brother's anatomy school). In 1776, he became surgeon to King George III, and in 1790, he became surgeon general to the army. His writings on scientific research were important as they were widely read and helped surgical knowledge.
In 1785, a man was admitted to hospital with a throbbing lump (aneurysm) on his knee joint; this would normally mean an amputation of the leg. Hunter thought about restricting the blood supply above the aneurysm, encouraging new blood vessels to develop. The patient kept his leg and walked out of hospital.
He had a huge collection of anatomical specimens (3,000 stuffed or dried animals, plants, fossils, diseased organs, embryos, and body parts - a famous item was a 7ft 7 inches skeleton, belonging to Irish giant, Charles Byrne.
He promoted careful observations and scientific method in surgeries. He even experimented on himself - e.g. in 1767, there was a discussion about whether gonorrhoea and syphilis were the same venereal disease, so Hunter injected himself with the pus of a gonorrhoea patient.
Important people Three
Edward Jenner was an apprentice surgeon (aged 13-19) and he went to study in London under John Hunter, who encouraged himself to experiment and test theories. In 1798, he published a book on vaccination.
In 1796, Jenner inserted cowpox into an 8 year old boy, with the reasoning that if the cowpox worked, the boy would not react to the smallpox inoculation. Six weeks later, the boy had the smallpox inoculation and no disease followed: thus proving Jenner's theory.
Jenner called this smallpox inoculation technique vaccination, after the Latin word for cow (vacca).
Jenner wanted to test a theory about smallpox - milkmaids caught cowpox (similar version to smallpox affecting cows) and Jenner thought this protected them against smalllpox.
The definition of vaccination is 'using the dead germs of a disease or one similar to it to build up an immunity (resistance) against the stronger form of the disease.
In 1798, Jenner published his findings. Jenner had powerful supporters (members of the Royal Family were vaccinated), and in 1802 he was given a grant of £10,000 for his research.