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GENDER, EVALUATION, EVALUATION, EVALUATION, EVALUATING SLT, EVALUATION,…
GENDER
ROLE OF CHROMOSOMES AND HORMONES IN SEX AND GENDER- From a biological perspective, sex and gender are the same
Behavioural , psychological and social differences between sexes are seen to the result of anatomical, chromosomal and hormonal differences of the body -human body cells: 46 chromosomes - 23 pairs, 1 of which is sex chromosome (females XX males XY)
- sex is determined by which sperm fertilises the egg
- all eggs carry an X chromosome
- sperm cells carry either X or Y
in first few weeks of life, embryo has no gender
- at 6 weeks, ovaries or gonads begin to develop
once the testes/ovaries develop, they each begin producing sex hormones
MALE= TESTOSTERONE: controls development of male sex hormones
- human and animal studies have demonstrated the influence of increased testosterone on aggressive behaviour
- Van de Poll et al showed that female rate injected with testosterone became more physically and sexually aggressive
FEMALE= OESTROGEN: determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
- experience heightened emotionally and irritability
- PMS (pre menstrual syndrome)
OXYTOCIN= large amounts in women particularly as a result of giving birth
- stimulates lactation
- reduces the stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding
oxytocin is released in massive quantities during labour and after childbirth
- makes new mothers fell 'in love' with their baby
RESEARCH- the condition CAH= a rare genetic disorder that causes high prenatal levels of male hormones such as testosterone. the condition can affect males and females - SHERI BERENBAUM & MICHAEL BAILY = found females with CAH are often described as 'tomboys' by family and friends. They exhibit higher levels of aggression than other girls and show a preference for 'boys toys'
THE ROLE OF HORMONES- chromosomes initially determine a person's sex but most gender development actually comes through the influence of hormones
- at puberty, a burst of hormonal activity triggers the development of the secondary sexual characteristics such as pubic hair
- males and females produce many of the same hormones but at different concentrations
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SLT- acknowledges the role that social context plays in development and states that all behaviour (including gender) is learned from observing others, including parents, peers, teachers culture and media (nurture)
- it implies that there are no psychological differences between males and females when they are born, therefore gender differences occur because of the way that society treats children
REINFORCEMENT- according to SLT, there is a point at which certain behaviours do not have to be reinforced. if a behaviour is well rehearsed it becomes internalised and integrated into a person's identity explaining how gender appropriate behaviours are maintained, even if they are not reinforced
DIRCET REINFORCEMENT- children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is gender- appropriate. which encourages stereotypes. the way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour is called DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION
- behaviours that are reinforced are then imitated. a child is more likely to imitate behaviour that is reinforced (indirect or direct)
VICARIOUS (indirect) REINFORCEMENT- if the consequences of another persons' behaviour are favourable it is more likely to be imitated. e.g. a mother gets complemented on make-up, girl tries to replicate behaviour
- if the consequences are unfavourable, less likely to be imitated. e.g. little boy sees classmate teased for displaying feminine behaviour, less likely to be copied
IDENTIFICATION- process in which a child attaches themselves to a person who is seen to be 'like me' or because a person is like someone they want to be
- the person possess qualities that the child sees as rewarding = role models e.g. parents, teacher, sibling
- may be present within media e.g. pop star, sports star , tend to be high status, attractive, same sex as child
- modelling is the demonstration of behaviour that may be imitated by the observer
MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES - Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation
RESEARCH- SMITH & LLOYD investigated whether mothers act differently towards a baby depending on the deceived sex of the baby
method- an experiment was carried out using 32 mothers who were told the study was investigating play. video-taped playing with 6 month old babies. sex-typed and sex-neutral toys were available. two male and two female babies were presented equally as their own sex and as the opposite sex using stereotyped clothes and names
results- babies perceived to be boys received more encouragement to play actively. only babies perceived to be girls were given dolls initially and only babies perceived to be boys were offered hammers initially
conclusion- mothers were involved in the process of differential treatment of boys and girls. suggested boys should learn their stereotypes and girls' theirs
EVALUATION OF STUDY - Independent groups design- to avoid the mothers guessing aim, independent groups was used. it may have been that the differences in the way the mothers played with girls and boys were down to individual differences
- measuring in terms of 'first toy offered' and 'length of toy use' lacked construct validity (narrow way of measuring)
- the study only reflects how mothers behaved at one point in time, the study also lacks temporal validity as mothers may not show the same level of stereotyping in todays society
SLT- a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
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ANDROGENY AND THE BSRI- Sandra Bem developed an inventory for measuring androgyny - - she suggested that high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being because they are better equipped to adapt to a range of situations and contexts
BSRI is based on gender stereotypes, measures how well you fit into your traditional role
Bem Sex Role Inventory contains 20 characteristics that would be commonly identified as 'masculine', 20 'female' and 20 'neutral'
- rated o a 7 point scale
- high M, low F = masculine
- high F, low M = feminine
- high M, high F = androgynous
- low M, low F = undifferentiated
SEX ROLE STEREOTYPES - a shared set of expectations that people in a society or culture hold about what is acceptable behaviour for males and females
RESEARCH SUPPORT
FURNHAM & FARRAGHER- there is evidence that the media does provide a very clear rigid gender stereotype
- they found that men are more likely to show autonomous roles within professional contexts whereas women often seen occupying family roles within domestic settings
- this suggests that he media does play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning male and female behaviour
INGALHALIKER- scanned the brains of 949 young men and women in the biggest investigation of this kind to date
- using MRI imaging they mapped the connections between the different parts of the brain
- found women's brain's have far better connections between the left and right sides
men's brains display more intense activity within the brain's individual parts, especially the cerebellum
- concluded the female brain is hard-wired to cope better with several tasks at once whereas men one task at once
DEFINITIONS- SEX: the biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy (e.g. reproductive organs)
GENDER: the psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, behaviours and sexual roles
TRANSGENGER: identify with other gender and incorporate one or more aspects, traits, social roles, characteristics
GENDER DYSPHORIA: a disorder where males and females experience a mismatch between their biological sex and gender identity
SEX ROLE STEROETYPE: narrow views of how men and women behave
ANDROGENY: displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in one's personality e.g. this could be a man who is competitive and aggressive at work' but kind and caring at home
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EVALUATION
Reliable- strength, been proven to be a reliable and valid measure of androgyny. for example, when BSRI was piloted with over 1000 students, the results broadly with corresponded with the ppts own description of their gender identity. follow up study include smaller sample of students tested a month later; increased validity and high test-retest reliability
Cultural and Historical bias- weakness, developed over 40 years ago and behaviours that are regarded as 'typical and acceptable' have changed significantly since. Bem's scale is made up of stereotypical views that may be outdated and lacking in temporal validity. in addition, the scale was devised using a panel of judges who were from USA. western notions of 'maleness and femaleness' may not be shared in all cultures
Measuring gender identity using questionnaires- weakness, asking people to rate themselves on a questionnaire relies on an understanding of their personality and behaviour that they may not necessarily have. gender is a hypothetical construct which is much more pen to interpretation than sex, which is a biological fact. system is objective and people's interpretations of the meaning of each of the 7 point scale may differ
EVALUATION
Research support - strength, in the case of David Reimer, who was left with no penis after a botched circumcision, was brought up to be a female despite still having the XY chromosomes. he was raised in a stereotypically female way, dressed as 'girls' played with dolls etc. By the time he was in his teens he never adjusted to life as a female. when he was told the truth he went back to be living as David who committed suicide in 2004. However the David R case can not be solely used for evidence = case study
Contradictory evidence- limitation, Tricker et al conducted a double-blind study where 43 males were given a weekly testosterone injection or a placebo. no significant changes in aggression were found after the 10 week period between the two groups. doesn't support the roles of the hormones
Hormones- strength, the determining influence of chromosomes on gender identity is supported by David r. in relation to sex hormones, James Dabbys found in a prison population, that offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes. shows evidence high testosterone impacts behaviour
EVALUATION
Contribution to the nature/nurture debate- strength, by comparing people who have these conditions with chromosome- typical individuals it becomes possible to see psychological and behavioural differences between the two groups (such as finding that people with Turner's syndrome tend to have higher verbal ability and tend to talk more than 'typical girls'. it might be logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of the abnormal chromosomal structure. this would suggest the innate 'nature' influences have a powerful effect on psychological behaviour
Practical application- strength, continued research into atypical sex chromosomes may lead to early, accurate diagnosis or Turner's, Klein... as well as more positive outcomes in future. An australian study of 87 individuals with Kleinf's showed those who had been identified and treated from very young age had significant benefits compared to those diagnosed in adulthood. suggests increased awareness= early diagnosis
Unusual sample- limitation, caution should always be exercised when drawing conclusions from an unusual and unrepresentative sample of people. the main issue is lack of generalisability from atypical individuals who look different (because of chromosomes) are likely to be treated differently by peers. May be an issue when trying to asses the relative contribution of nature and nurture in terms of behavioural and psychological differences
EVALUATING SLT
Supporting evidence- strength, Smith and Lloyd involved 4-6 month old babies who were dressed half the time in boys' clothes and half the time in girls' clothes. when observed interacting with adults, babies assumed to be boys were given a hammer shaped rattle and encouraged to be adventurous. babies dressed as girls were handed dolls, told they were pretty and reinforced for being passive. this suggests that gender-appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age through differential reinforcement and supports social learning theory
Explains changing gender roles- strength, when explaining androgyny, that there exists less of a clear-cut distinction between what people regard as stereotypically masc and fem behaviour in our society today than many years ago. explained by a shift in social expectations and cultural norms over the years that has meant new forms of acceptable gender behaviour have been reinforced. there has been no corresponding change in people's basic biology within the same period, such as shift is much better explained by SLT than bio approach
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