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Identity - Coggle Diagram
Identity
Ethnicity
Ghumann researched into british asian identity and found that religion and family values were often important in raising second generation. There was a focus on extended feasibly, honour and duty.
Modood highlights how the identity of Asian in Britain often refers to people from the indian subcontinent, but in america this refers to americans of chinese and japanese origin.
Gilroy he looked at ‘black atlantic’ identity and saw an identity that transcend different backgrounds as racism is a shared experince.
Hewitt they looked at white backlash against multiculturalism and found that white working class saw policies for equality as unfair as they were also under pressure economically
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Back ‘neighbourhood nationalism’ and cultural hybridity in an ethnographic study of two council estates in london, he found that cultural hybridity from youths of all ethnic backgrounds meant that they shared an identity based on mixed ethnicity and ‘neighbourhood nationalism’.
Brah looked at cultural code switching and how it highlights their two cultures rather than a hybrid of two. There is often a conflict or culture clash which is experienced by young british asians.
Sewell looked at labelling by British teachers and how they negatively label them causing ‘hustling’ masculinity to be prioritised rather than academics
Reynolds looked at African-Caribbean family life in the UK and found a collective and individual pride in culture and identity. Also a close relationship with family in the Caribbean and mutual economic support.
Van Dijk content analysis of ten of thousands of news items that disproportionately representation ethnic minorities as criminals, asylum seekers, potential terrorsists and subscribing to abnormal beliefs.
Best and Kellner media reinforcing black identity for example through music which allowed them to communicate their anger about racism, economic and social deprivation. It provides a voice to those who are excluded from mainstream media.
Hudson et al researched racial discrimination in the workplace and found that ethnic minorities often had to work harder than white peers for recognition and promotion. They also often experienced harassment and discrimination from management and white workers
Rao and Stevenson researched unemployment levels for ethnic minorities and found that they were disproportionately high
Gender
Wilson argues that men are more promiscuous as they need to reproduced but women can’t be as they need to ensure their child has their father to help in their upbringing.
Parsons there is the instrumental (male breadwinner) role and the expressive (housewife) role in the family.
Margret Mead researched gender roles in tribes and found that they were different on the tribes (one no one was aggressive, one females were but not males)
Ann Oakley gender socialisation takes place through canalisation, manipulation, verbal appellation and different activities
Mulvey the male gaze is where in the media women are objectified and the viewer is encouraged to do the same. This is always done from the heterosexual male perspective, seeing women as passive objects.
Hey studied female friendships in school and saw how the norms of groups were rooted in the patriarchy
Mac and Ghail there is a crisis of masculinity felt by working class men when they lose their breadwinner title as traditionally male industries are in decline, and also saw that in mae peer groups at school sexuality was police by each other, masculinity was defined by football, fighting and fucking
Blackman looked into lower middle and working class girls in secondary school in 1990s, saw that there were becoming more assertive and challenging the subordinate, passive stereotype (new wave girls)
Duncombe and Marsden argue that women have a triple shift, paid employment, emotional care of the family and the childcare/ domestic labour
Glass ceiling- unable to reach promotions in jobs due to gender but are able to see them
Glass elevator- men are promoted faster in female dominated fields as they are assumed to be better
Concrete ceiling - suggests that barriers for women of colour are greater then white women
Connell types of masculinity include:
- Complicit (performs ‘female’ tasks in the house)
- Hegemonic (traditional aggressive, dominant)
- Marginalised (lost breadwinner role due to deindustrialisation so feel emasculated also due to women’s rights)
- Subordiante (gay man who lacks the link to sexual dominance over women so seen as less than)
Jackson there was an increase in female risk taking behviour, ‘ladette’ culture involved avoid feminine stereotypes in order to be seen as cool
Canaan researched into working class men and found that they linked employment to masculinity when unemployed and felt emasculated, but when employed they linked it to drinking, sexual conquests and aggression
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Social class
Bourdieu argues that there are three types of economic capital:
- economic
- cultural (education, music, literature, arts)
- social (connections)
Marx argues that society is divided into the bourgeoisie and the proletariat dependent on economic position, this is determined by their possession of the means of production.
Lyon people are now able to form their own social class identities due to consumerism as we are in a postmodern society, this expansion on popular culture has then led to a decline in traditional values.
Scott argues that there are different elecments being upper class identity:
- Education (private)
-Family, kinship and marriage (stay within class)
- Social and leisure
Mooney upper class identity can now be through archived status rather than just ascribed status like it previously was
Blair argues that we are all now middle class as the labour government has emphasised the importance of going to university, therefore more working class peple go to university (differed gratification is a middle class characteristic).
Savage the line between middle and working class has become blurred, when interviewing the working class d from manchester only 40% identified themselves as working class and 10% labelled themselves as middle class.
This may be linked to a reduction in working class manual jobs when mines closed and then an increase in office jobs in call centres which were paid similarly to working class obs but had a middle classs culture.
Fox argues that within the middle class there are upper, middle and lower.
Hutton there has been a breakdown of the working class due to a decline in trade union membership and collapse of working class jobs like mining and factory work, despite this many middle classs men still hold onto their working class identity.
Skegg many working class women don’t associate with a working class label as it has led to them being dismissed due to their background. They distance themselves to be seen as respectable.
Murry there is a growing under class who are married to the state and dependent on government support. Generous financial support from the government can lead to a culture of dependeny where people lack motivation to work and support themselves.
Pakulski there has been a shift in consumption, we are now defined by what we buy rather than what we do
Offe fewer individuals are experinceing being in full time work and people no longer have a job for life which allows identities to change more freely and be developed by an individual.
Sexuality
Quinn Looked at same-sex relationships in Native American Tribes and found that they still had wife and husband labels.
Kinsey in 1948-1953 in US found that 37% had had homosexual encounters but less than 4% were exclusively homosexual
Weeks found that sexual identity was more significant for those who are not heterosexual, coming out is seen as a political statement as not being straight were seen as a mental illness.
McIntosh ooked into the ‘homosexual role’ in western culture gay men there are expectations which were seen to be met when their fully accepted their homosexual identity.
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Plummer once label is accepted they enter a ‘homosexual career’ where they seek out subcultures and stereotypes become the norm (argue that it is the acceptance of the label that makes them homosexual no the sexual attraction)
Rich women are socialised into compulsory heterosexuality to ensure their availability to men due to the patriarchy
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Browne study of the ‘glass closet’ in 2014, argues that people may not be able to come out in fear of loosing their job (34% don’t disclose their sexuality in fear of homophobia)
McCormack and Anderson Studies males in a 6th form and found that homophbia was a sign of immaturity, also found that hate crimes rose after the 2016 EU referendum
Humphrey’s Tearoom investigation into homosexual activity in the 1960s in pubic places. Found that men from all walks of life/ social classes were involved and feared being caught.
Disabilty
Frances Martinez society defines what is normal and are not tolerant of those who don’t meet it. Society labels the individuals rather than changing society to allow them to move freely as able-bodies people.
Lee Ridley comedian who had cerebral palsy highlights how he has been overlooked for jobs and has worked with scope UK to eradicated uneasiness around disability. Scope found that43% of people don’t now anyone disables (they may not be aware if they do).
Shakespeare Major obstacles in forming postive identity as they are so issued to see themselves as inferior and are often isolated in an able bodied society who pities them.
Ways of understanding disability:
Medical mode-focus on limitations and impairment and sees it as the individuals problem.
Social mode- focuses on social and physical barriers that someone faces that are due to society.
Disablism- prejudices against disabled people, this can be in the forms of:
- Mass media (pity)
- Environment often not suitable
- Employers
- Bullying and hate crimes
Master status - label transcends other parts of identity
Gill- polio survivor who became disabled and looked into how to reform identity after previously being able-bodied. Usually felt pit on the group that she is now a part of.
Zola- disabled through polio and argued that the vocabulary used to describe disabled people is discriminatory
Murugumi argues that a disabled person has the ability to sel construct their identity that accepts their impairments but is independent of it.
Mass media
Scope 2011 disabilty rights group highlights how people are portrayed as ‘bravel suffering’ and ‘courageous’
Education
Olney and Brokelman- studies 2 university student groups ,one with hidden and one with invisible disabilities. The latter were treated with skepticism .
Workplace
Equality act 2010- employers must make reasonable adjustments to avoid disadvantaging disabled people
DoE 2012- less than 1/20 people with mental or physical disabilities are in employment
Disability Rights UK- on average earn £1 less per hour
Keasting and Santuzzi 2016- the extent of disabilities at work can have social and psychological costs, impacting relationships
National
Anderson highlights how mas media encourages national identity through national symbols, language, sports, royalty and the promotion of anti-eurpean atitudes in Brexit.
Kumar British identity is constructed as a it is not specific as it included multiple different cultures
Ofsted and Gove found that in 2014 in some Birmingham schools Islamic values were held above British values, this then led to Michael Gove getting schools to promote British values, including gender equality, acceptance of all religions, British law, and democracy.
Sadar there is a global identity crisis as it was previously defined by the conflict between capitalism as communism, the British empire has collapsed which is what ‘Englishness’ was based on.
Halsey americanisation is where due to internaltion homogeneity the world is become in more like America
Darcus Howe British identity is now exclusively white, he grew up in the Carribean which at the time was part of the British empire, so he considered himself black and british, but has been excluded due to his race.
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Stuart Hall highlights the different reactions ot globalisation, he argues they are one of:
- cultural homogenisation (accept a global culture)
- cultural hybridity (parts of global culture alongside traditional culture)
- cultural resistance (may resist global culture and protect their own).
Age
Laslett argues there are three ages in life
- Period of socialisation
- Work and child rearing
- Independence
There could also be a forth which is dependence as health deteriorates.
Postman The concept of an innocent childhood has spread due to spread of literacy and mandatory education as it allows parents to protect their children from the horrors of the world- death sex and disease. mandatory education has come from the need for a more technical workforce but the mass media threatens this concept of childhood.
Hockney and James saw children as having a lack of personhood as they were excluded from public and confined to specialist places. Seen as innocent, dependent and that they need to be controlled, this was seen to be similar to the elderly, they are seen to loose their status through infantilisation which creates a self fulfilling prophecy.
Bradely argues that middle age has higher status than youth or old age as they are holding power through employment and running politics. This ge can also be seen negatively through ‘empty nest syndrome’ or ‘midlife crisis’ .
Corner looked at the language used by those in their old age to describe their own identity and found that they saw themselves as a burden or were concerned about become one. This was seen to reflect atttiudes in media.
Featherstone and Hepworth argues that the media negatively stereotypes ageing. Despite this ‘retro’ fashion helps to blur the boundary between generations and can create new identities.
Chronologically aging refers to actual age in years which brings specific roles ands responsibility. This contradicts the idea that age is a social construct .