Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Sport Jan Mock - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Behaviour towards stimulus in game scenarios. Positives are there is more game understanding as it's applied in games, good for varied environment skills , good for advanced performers, good for team games. Drawbacks are a higher perceptual load , takes longer to strengthen the SR bond , skills done in game scenarios may be overwhelming to beginners, weaker motor programmes, may not be as many situations to trigger the stimulus.
    - - Observational Learning
        
        Attention to demonstration - The performer must pay attention to the demonstration in order to obtain the necessary information needed to perform a skill, they will also need to pay attention to the accuracy and execution of the skill.
        
        Retention of demonstration - The performer must be able to retain information they have been shown, the coach must not overwhelm the player with too much information.
        
        Motor reproduction of demonstration - Performer needs to be able to then perform the scale themselves after being shown how.
        
        Motivation to match performance of demonstration - Performers need to be motivated to perform the skill to the best of their ability to tch the performance of the demonstration.
    - - Modifying the behaviour towards the stimulus, training is done through training and practice drills. Positives of operant conditioning are that the performers perceptual load can be lowered , the SR bond also can be strengthened , good for beginners learning the skills , good for fixed environment skills. Cons are that the performer is not obtaining game understanding , it also relies on Thorndike's Law (law of effect, law of readiness, law of exercise) , relies on previous experience of the performer.
        
        Thorndike's Laws
        
        Law of readiness - Satisfier strengthens the stimulus response bond
        
        Law of exercise- Performer must be physically and mentally ready to learn the skill.
        
        Law of effect - Repetition of the stimulus response bond
  - - - When a skill/task currently being learned has an effect on future skills/tasks. An example of this is a throwing motor programme learned as a child will later transfer positively and proactively to an over arm bowl in cricket.
    - - Occurs when the skill being developed / learnt has an effect in one that has been previously learned An example of this is the acquisition of a successful tennis serve may influence the previously learned over arm throw used in cricket.
    - - When one skill/task hinders or inhibits the learning or performance of another skill/task - known as negative transfer of learning - Pick up bad habits and bad traits which affect performances. For example not using footwork in basketball and then having to use it in netball.
    - - Bilateral transfer occurs when learning is transferred from limb to limb (eg: from right to left) for example learning to kick a football when you are left footed and you learn to use your right foot.
    - - Positive transfer, as the term suggests is when skills/tasks that have been learned/experienced help or facilitate the learning of other skills. For example having the knowledge of the javelin throw and then using it to learn an overarm throw.
  - - - At this stage of learning the performer is advanced the movements are automatic and are performed with minimal conscious thought. Performers rely on intrinsic feedback (feedback from themselves) this is because they have a high understanding of what is expected of them and they understand their own ability. Distractions are ignored as the performer focuses solely on the skill and they do not have attentional wastage.
    - - Practice stage : Performer makes fewer mistakes due to their knowledge progressing and their understanding improving. At this stage the performers have a mental image of this skill (as they have possibly watched a demonstration or observational learning). The performer is gradually building kinaesthetic awareness. The motor programme for the skill is formed and the performer is gradually improving.
    - - The performer at this stage is a beginner and has little to no knowledge on how the skill is performed. They will have no mental image as it will possibly be their first time learning the skill. The performer is likely to make many mistakes and will learn through trial and error. Many demonstrations will be needed at this stage as the performer needs to obtain a mental image of the skill. Extrinsic feedback is needed this is because the coaches will need to give the learner feedback as they will have a better understanding and be able to inform them how they can progress and improve.
  - - - Whole part whole practice is where you practice the skill in its entirety at first and then practice a single subroutine that may need improvement, after you combine it all together and complete the skill fully. Positives are that you can see what areas you need to improve on as you perform the skill whole first , this can make the skill more fluent. A drawback is that this practice is not for high organisation skills. Example skills are a lay up in basketball.
    - - Progressive part practice is where you practice the first skill in isolation, then practice the second skill in isolation after that you combine the first and the second skill together , and then you progress to add more skills. Positives include lowering the perceptual load and slowly progressing adds more confidence to the performer. Drawbacks are that it can only be used for serial skills. Example sports are a gymnastics routine and dance routine.
    - - Whole practice is where the skill is taught in full to a performer however this type of practice can be made easier through regression. This type of practice is used for high organisation skills that can not be split into subroutines. Positives are that the kinaesthetic sense is improved and it's less time consuming. However a drawback is that there could be a higher perceptual load. Skills this is good for are running and golf swings.
    - - Massed practice is where you practice with no breaks and goes on for a long duration, there is little to no time for feedback, it also requires a high level of fitness so it is more suited for advanced performers. Positives are that it does not waste time. Drawbacks are that if players are not given feedback they may not perform as well as they could or they may be practicing the skill the wrong way. Some example skills are a 3 pointer in basketball and a shot in netball.
    - - Part practice is where you practice a single subroutine of the skill in isolation. This is done so that when it comes to performing the sport the performer has a lower perceptual load and higher confidence. Another positive is that it improves your kinaesthetic sense. However drawbacks are that this type of practice can not be done with high organisation skills. Skills this is good for is a headstand.
    - - Varied practice is where practice is repeated in a constantly changing environment and outside factors may affect the decision making during the skill. Positives are that it makes the athlete more confident under pressure as they will be put in lifelike scenarios. Drawbacks however are that it can only be used for open environment skills. Example skills are netball and football passes.
    - - Fixed practice is where practice is repeated in the same environment everytime and there is no outside interference. Drawbacks are that it is bad for open skills such as football passes. Positives are that it improves consistency and accuracy. Example skills are Javelin and all closed skills.
    - - Distributed practice is where within the practice there are regular breaks and interval times for feedback. The performer is given rest and variety. Positives are that the practice is good for beginners as they will be given feedback and breaks. Drawbacks are that the athlete may be getting distracted with breaks and the duration of the practice may be increased. Example skills are a beginner doing a basketball shot.
  - - - Visual guidance can be video analysis, watching games. This guidance is optimal for beginners as it can provide them with a mental image of the skill, this means they can obtain the information they need. However this guidance relies on the demonstrations that may be given for if they are not up to a high standard or if they are incorrect the players obtain the wrong or not enough information.
    - - When a coach physically assists the performer in the learning of the skill this can be supporting them on certain skills for example in a trampoline somersault the coach may support a beginners stomach when learning the skill , or a coach might hold a person's stomach when teaching a child to swim. Benefits are that it is good for beginners as it increases their confidence and ability. Drawbacks are that the performer may become reliant on the aid.
    - - Verbal guidance is when a coach might give feedback to players, explain strategies or techniques to performers, or give verbal guidance when performing a demo to relalay more information. A drawback of verbal is that it might overwhelm the players if you give them too much information at once and they can not retain it all. An advantage is that it is good for advanced players and it can be used alongside visuals.
    - - This guidance is assistance from objects for example a harness when learning a trampoline routine or a float when learning how to swim. This improves the performers ability and can increase the performers confidence. However the performer can become too reliant on the aid and may not want to try it on their own
  - - - Short Term Memory Storage
        
        ‘Working memory’ is where the information is used to decide what needs to be done. Limited amount can be stored here (for 30 seconds). To extend the time the performer would have to rehearse the information through imagery or sub-verbal repetition. If information is considered to be important it is rehearsed and passed to the long-term memory (encoding), information that is not important is forgotten.
      - Long Term Memory
        
        Has limitless capacity and is held for a long period of time (storage). Store encoded information. Information is stored in the long-term by associating it with other information or with meaning. Motor programmes are stored in the long-term memory because they have been rehearsed many times. Process of continued rehearsal leads to skill becoming automatic and the process of learning by rehearsal is referred to as ‘overlearning’.
      - Short Term Sensory Storage
        
        Stimuli enters the brain from the environment. Each store has a large capacity, but information is only stored for 1 second before it filters (takes place in stimulus identification phase). Selective attention takes place for example in sport distractions must be shut out.
    - - Depth of Processing
        
        How much information considered is called the ‘depth of processing’ the deeper the information is processed the longer the memory lasts.
      - The 3 Levels
        
        Phonetic Level
        
        This involves processing sounds of the words.
        
        Semantic Level
        
        This considers the actual meaning of the words, which is the deepest level of processing.
        
        Structural Level
        
        This involves paying attention to what the words look like. This is the shallowing level of processing,
      - Explanation
        
        Levels of processing model seeks to explain what we do with the information rather than how it is stored. Information received by the brain will be transferred to the long term memory if the information is : considered, understood and has meaning (past memories).
  - - - Praises the performer on their ability to perform a skill, given when something is done correctly. For example if the performer scores a goal they will be congratulated and praised for their shot. Benefits are that it motivates players and increases confidence and self belief. Players are also more likely to listen to the feedback. Drawbacks are that if the players are always given positives they may not progress as they are not told ways they can improve. They may also be practicing the wrong stimulus response but are still being praised.
    - - Pointing out what the performer has done wrong when performing. For example if the performer misses a shot in football they may be shouted at or blamed for it. Positives are that the players are made aware of when they have done something wrong which means they will not perform that stimulus again. Drawbacks are that if players are always given negatives then it may drive them to stop participating in the sport. Performers are also less likely to listen to feedback if it is negative.
    - - Feedback is given by a coach or trainer and is given to the performer from an outside viewer. For example if the performer misses a penalty the coach would give feedback on ways they could improve. Benefits are that it is beneficial at all stages of learning and the players can have the incorrect motor programmes corrected. However extrinsic feedback is time consuming as there needs to be breaks in order for the coaches to give players feedback. If the coach is not trained they could be relaying the wrong information.
    - - This is feedback which is given based on how the athletes overall performance of the skill was. For example if a netball player throws a poor pass they may receive feedback informing them that their set up position was good but the actual execution and angle of the skill was incorrect.
    - - Feedback is given by the performer themselves in ways that they believe they can improve. For example a basketball player may throw a 3 pointer and then assess how they could improve their technique if they missed. Benefits of intrinsics are the performer knows their own ability and knows what they are comfortable doing. It's best used on advanced players as they understand what is required of them. Drawbacks are if the feedback is only coming from the performer then they may not progress and they make practice the wrong stimulus if not corrected.
    - - This is feedback which is given based on the overall results of the game or the outcome of their game. For example if a netball team is to lose the game the coach will give feedback based on loss of the game. This feedback can also be given on the score , time or position.
- - - - The patterns of thoughts and feelings and the way in which we interact with our environment and other people, that makes us unique.
      - Personality Types
        
        Type A
        
        Fast working, strong desire to succeed, likes control but prone to suffer stress, highly motivated and competitive, more likely to show aggression. Too much aggression can lead to bans and disqualifications in sport.
        
        Type B
        
        Slow working, relaxed and tolerant, does not enjoy control but not prone to suffer stress, lacks desire to succeed. Good for large performances where the performer needs to be relaxed however they will not be as determined.
        
        Stable
        
        Usually predictable and secure with emotions and behaviours. An individual may show the same level of competitiveness or calmness in their approach making them more stable. Can think strategically and do not let their emotions overcome their thoughts however if predictable people can determine their next move.
        
        Unstable
        
        Unpredictable with their emotions and behaviours. An individual could be aggressive but at the same amount of aggression varies making them unpredictable and therefore they are unstable. Aggression is needed in some sports and people never know what to expect, may affect how people see you (deemed metally unstable or neurotic).
        
        Extrovert
        
        They require external stimulation as they seek social situations and excitement. They lack concentration.
        
        Introvert
        
        They do not require external stimulation as they don’t seek social situations but prefer quieter one to one. They are good at concentrating.
    - - The degree of physiological and psychological readiness and activation.
    - - Extrinsic Motivation
        
        Extrinsically motivated athletes tend to focus on the competitive or performance outcome.
      - Intrinsic Motivation
        
        Athletes who are intrinsically motivated participate in sports for internal reasons, such as enjoyment
    - - A predisposition to act in a particular way towards something or someone in a person's environment (to an attitude object). They are learned rather than innate and so are therefore unstable.If an attitude is created from information that is false or bias this is a prejudice (Perceived opinion based on faulty or inflexible generalisation)
    - - The negative aspect of experiencing stress caused by worry and apprehension. In sport anxiety is usually due to fear of failing in a competition.
      - State Anxiety
        
        Situation dependent, it is often linked to competitive anxiety where the individual will feel anxious about losing or potentially being judged.
      - Trait Anxiety
        
        Is a stable personality trait where the individual will become more anxious in most situations, and is innate.
      - ZOF
        
        Where an athlete's arousal or anxiety levels are at the optimum level and therefore they will give their best performance
    - - Intent to harm outside the rules of the sport for example a football player physically and intentionally pushing another player in the back
      - Assertion
        
        Forceful behaviour within the rules of the event for example in boxing a punch is allowed and rewarded.
      - Instinct Theory
        
        Instinct theory suggests that someone is born with aggressive tendencies (natural response). Hard to control and implies that some people are just always aggressive and may experience a release of aggression if they channel it through sport. This theory does not take into account a person's environment and implies people are constantly aggressive.
      - Social Learning Theory
        
        Social learning theory suggests that aggression is a learned response and is learnt from watching significant others and copying their behaviour. Bandura's theory. Does not take into account their innate behaviour and not everyone seeks to copy.
    - - The positive influence of others, who may be watching or competing on a sports performance.
      - Social Inhibition
        
        The negative influence of others, who may be watching or competing, which leads to a decrease in performance.
      - Evaluate Apprehension
        
        Increased arousal (anxiety) when the performer perceives co actors or audience to be evaluating their performance (positive or negative).
  - - - Storming
        
        Members argue and compete with each other, different type of leaders emerge, coach must guide the team, stronger sense of purpose, power struggles, Team must be focused on the goals and avoid distractions
      - Norming
        
        Group members agree how to work together, rules and goals are developed with acceptable behaviour defined, leaders emerge and take responsibility, approach becomes a consultant, decisions made through group agreement
      - Forming
        
        Members get to know each other, high dependence on leader for guidance, little agreement on aims other than what is given by the leader, individual roles unclear
      - Performing
        
        Group works as a unit, members are interdependent, more skilful or experienced members make decisions independently, focus on achieving goals, little to no interference from the coach, disagreements are handled positively and the team makes the required changes
    - - Actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty group processes
        
        Factors leading to a faulty group
        
        Lack of motivation (different levels amongst the team)
        
        Lack of coordination (timing and coordination does not match)
    - - Average individual performance level decreases due to being a part of a larger group, players may be reliant on other players to exert.
      - Social Loafing
        
        When individuals in a group lose motivation, as they lose their identity within the group as their efforts are not being recognised.
  - - - State that occurs when someone has experienced a stressful situation repeatedly ( in sport trial and error may make someone frustrated due to not being able to do something)
      - Unable to control (perceived as genetic ability)
      - (specific learned helplessness) particular situation
      - (global learned helplessness) group situations
    - - Focus on learning and improvement and that success is the result of effort and use of appropriate strategies. (strive to develop understanding. Eg. when an athlete develops and improves skills they are more likely to succeed). Athletes can set goals based on skills they wish to enhance and persist when they experience failure. Links to Weiner's model - effort area of the model.
  - - - The belief or degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful in sport
    - - The confidence we have in specific situations
    - - Confidence in one's own worth or abilities or circumspect
    - - Competitive Orientation
        
        Level of competitiveness.
      - State sports confidence
        
        Levels based on the situation they are in. For example if a gymnast is competing in a major competition they will feel less confident.
      - Trait sports confidence
        
        The perceptions that individuals usually possess about their ability to be successful in sport.
      - Subjective perceptions of outcome
        
        Result of the skill, as if it is good the athlete will be pleased and is therefore more likely to redo or complete the skill. If they are disappointed they are less likely to.
    - - Vicarious Experiences
        
        Please refer to what we have observed before. If we watch others perform and be successful than me and more likely to experience high self-efficacy as long as the performers we are watching are of a similar standard .
      - Verbal Persuasion
        
        If we are in the courage to try a particular activity, confidence in that situation may increase. The effectiveness of this encouragement depends upon who is encouraging us and in what ways.Significant others are more likely to persuade someone.
      - Performance Accomplishment
        
        These probably have the strongest influence on self confidence. If success has been experienced in the past especially if it has been attributed to controllable factors and feelings of self-confidence and more likely to be high.
      - Emotional Arousal
        
        Perceptions of how aroused we are can affect our confidence in a particular situation. If you have effective strategies to control physiological and psychological arousal levels you are more likely to have high self-efficacy.
  - - - Leader is more concerned with interpersonal relations and is more social in their approach and takes contributions for decision making. Suits advanced players who have knowledge and it helps to motivate the group. Females are more likely to prefer this. In dangerous situations this is not fitting.
    - - When the leader has no direct influence on members, the leader takes the back seat and members make decisions. Suitable for high level learners or elite athletes to help develop creativity and full trust in members capability. This style may be adapted if the leader is unable to employ other leadership styles.
    - - Leader makes most of the decisions and concentrates on the job that needs to be done. They are more concerned with the end product such as winning or predetermined goals. Used when discipline and control is needed or when hostile groups are involved. If the situation is dangerous or the performer is a novice.
    - - Social Learning Theory
        
        These characteristics are taught through experience and training (vicarious learning). Demonstrates the importance of the social environment in developing leadership qualities.
      - Interactionist
        
        Solely looks at the interaction between the situation (competition type) and the leader. An effective leader cannot be due to only personality characteristics. This theory suggests that certain situations need different personality characteristics.
      - Trait Perspective
        
        Certain traits society sees as leadership traits, people are said to be born with personality traits that make them good leaders. These are genetic dispositions and are stable and enduring. Eg. Roy Keane has said to be ‘a born leader’
    - - Antecedents
        
        Situational characteristics - What is actually taking place during the skill and the danger of the skill. If the skill is dangerous there needs to be an autocratic leadership style.
        
        Leader characteristics - The personality of the leader and what the leadership style the leader has employed.
        
        Member characteristics - This may be the stage of learning or the attitude of the performer.
      - Leader Behaviour
        
        Required behaviour - This is the behaviour needed for the type of sport depending on the level of sversity.
        
        Actual behaviour - The behaviour which the leader shows, once they find out what the situation is and the characteristics of the performer. Thus impacting the leadership style.
        
        Preferred behaviour - more the leader’s actual behaviour matches the expectations of the group and the demands of the situation, the greater will be the group performance and satisfaction
      - Performance Accomplishment
        
        The type of success rate the performer has can impact whether or not the performer chooses to do the skill again and this can impact the performer's participation and the sports confidence of the performer.
  - - - The feeling of being overwhelmed or unable to cope with mental and emotional pressure.
        Stress is more often linked to negative feelings and can be seen as psychological state produced by perceived physiological; and psychological forces acting on our sense of wellbeing
    - - Mental Rehearsal
        
        Mental rehearsal is employed by an individual who sets out with the intent of achieving specific cognitive and motivational outcomes. It helps improve a performer's confidence as a performer imagines themselves successfully dealing with challenges. The second part of mental rehearsal is relaxation as it helps prevent the onset of anxiety. An example of this is a trampolinist, who may think of the correct technique before she performs, to help inhibit stress. Elite athletes are able to self regulate their performance, feelings and thoughts which helps to distinguish them from those who do not excel in the sport.
      - Imagery
        
        Guided imagery is a method for managing your stress. It's a relaxation technique that involves visualizing positive, peaceful settings. Imagery, which not only focuses on visual senses but may include other senses as well, helps athletes to reduce anxiety and improve performance.
      - Rational Thinking
        
        The ability to consider the relevant variables of a situation and to access,organize and analyse relevant information. Thoughts based on reason rather than emotion. Telling yourself you can beat the team you’re playing because you beat them by a great margin last time. Rational thinking means you tend to think more in the future than the present. You also like to list the pros and cons before making a decision.
      - Goal Setting
        
        Different Types of Goals
        
        Outcome Goals: Directed goals towards the end achievement of the activity
        
        Performance Goals: Directed towards an athlete’s end performance
        
        Process Oriented Goals: Improving a certain skill or technique
      - Negative Thought Stopping
        
        Being aware of negative thoughts entering the mind and challenging these thoughts. Effect of self confidence and self efficacy. For example a trampoline performer may feel worried about their performance and needs to stop this worry.
      - Positive Thinking
        
        Thinking about obtaining success and thinking of past positive performances helps minimise doubts you are not capable of or that the task is too hard. It also helps to prevent anxiety.
      - Mindfulness
        
        Allows athletes to become aware of personal thoughts, feelings, and other internal stimuli and encourages athletes to focus on personal values or processes of sport related skills and game strategies rather than performance outcomes
    - - Biofeedback
        
        During biofeedback, you're connected to electrical sensors that help you receive information about your body. This feedback helps you make subtle changes in your body, such as relaxing certain muscles, to achieve the results you want, such as reducing pain
      - Centering Technique
        
        Centering is an ancient visualization technique that is popular. It teaches you to focus on the here and now, taking power away from outside concerns and negative thoughts, and helping you remain stable and grounded.
      - Progressive Muscular Relaxation
        
        Progressive muscle relaxation is a method that helps relieve that tension. In progressive muscle relaxation, you tense a group of muscles as you breathe in, and you relax them as you breathe out. You work on your muscle groups in a certain order. When your body is physically relaxed, you cannot feel anxious.
      - Breathing Control
        
        Breathing control. Breathing control means breathing gently, using the least effort. It will help when you're short of breath or feeling anxious. The technique below is sometimes taught in yoga. To get used to breathing control, it helps to practice when you are sitting, relaxed and not out of breath.
- - - - Neural
        
        Decreased inhibition of the stretch flex (increased stretch of antagonist)
        
        Increased recruitment of motor units (improved coordination of motor units)
      - Metabolic
        
        Increased ATP, phosphocreatine and glycogen stores
        
        Increased enzyme activity (reduces fatigue, increased ATP activity)
        
        Increased buffering capacity (delayed OBLA, increased aerobic threshold)
        
        Increased muscle mass (increased metabolic rate, improved body composition)
      - Muscle and Connective Tissues
        
        Muscle hypertrophy and muscle hyperplasia
        
        Increased number and size of contractile proteins and myofibrils (increased protein synthesis and thickness of cross bridge)
        
        Increases strength of tendons and ligaments (decreased risk of injury)
        
        Increased bone density and mass (decrease risk of osteoporosis)
    - - Cross Sectional Area
        
        Greater the cross sectional area of the muscle, the greater the strength. 16-30N of force per square centimetre of muscle cross section → greater cross sectional area, the greater the force of contraction.
      - Fibre Type
        
        FG and FOG fibres → Greater strength over a short period of time. Fast twitch fibres have larger motor neurons which means larger motor units are created. When these are recruited, greater contractions occur.
    - - One Rep Max
        
        Choose one exercise with a particular muscle group. Free weight, increase weight until one maximal rep. Ensure full recovery between reps to prevent fatigue
      - Sit Up Test
        
        Participants perform continuous sit ups at progressive intensities till exhaustion. Each sit up to an audio cue. Miss a beat the test is over. Advantages are Large groups at the same time, simple and cheap equipment required and valid and reliable. Disadvantages are Good technique is key, the subject needs to be highly motivated and the test is not sport specific.
      - Grip Strength Dynamometer
        
        Advantages are Simple and objective measures, inexpensive equipment and high reliability. Disadvantages are Only the forearm muscles are assessed and test is not sport specific
      - Vertical Jump Test
        
        Advantages are Data can be converted into a power estimate using a formula, easy test with minimal equipment and test could be administered by the participants. Disadvantages are the measure is not isolated to one muscle group and only estimates explosive strength in the legs.
  - - - Range of motion around a joint
    - - Range of motion around a joint without taking into account movement. Eg. splits
    - - Range of motion around a joint taking movement into account. Eg. javelin.
    - - Connective Tissues
        
        (length and elasticity of connective tissues) greater lengths of tendons, ligaments and muscles lead to a greater range of motion. Takes longer for stretch reflex to be initiated due to greater lengths.
      - Age
        
        Highest in childhood, declines with age. Age related decline due to loss of elasticity in connective tissues.
      - Type of Joint
        
        Ball and socket joints have greater movement than hinge joints. Due to the size and shape of the articulating bones can limit the range of motion.
      - Gender
        
        Females are generally more flexible than males. Females have higher levels of estrogen and relaxin, the hormone response for elasticity.
    - - Sit and Reach
        
        Sit and Reach Flexibility Test. The sit and reach test is a common measure of flexibility, and specifically measures the flexibility of the lower back and hamstring muscles. Advantages are that it is easy and cheap to administer and results can be compared to standardised data for comparison. Disadvantages are that it only measures lower back flexibility.
      - Goniometer
        
        To measure the range of motion at a joint, the center of the goniometer is positioned at the axis of rotation of a joint, and the arms of the goniometer are aligned with the long axis of the bones of the adjacent segments or to an external reference. A Goniometer is an instrument that either measures an angle or allows an object to be rotated to a precise angular position. Disadvantages are it is sometimes difficult to position and maintain the arms of the goniometer along the bones of the segments throughout the measurement.
    - - Static Flexibility
        
        Range of motion at a joint without taking movement into account. Advantages are that it uses the full range of motion, no training is required, slow and easy pace and effective in increasing range of motion. Disadvantages are the muscles can only stretch within the body's natural range of motion and decreased maximal strength.
      - Dynamic Flexibility
        
        Range of motion at a joint with taking movement into account. Advantages are that it uses the full range of motion, increased range of motion and effective way to warm up muscles.
      - PNF
        
        PNF stretching is an advanced form of flexibility training. It involves the contraction and stretching of muscles. The technique was first used in clinical rehabilitation. Advantages are that it uses the full range of motion, can improve muscular strength, faster gains than other methods, aids muscle relaxation. Disadvantages are that it can cause micro tears in connective tissues and more complex
      - Ballistic Flexibility
        
        Ballistic stretching uses the momentum of a moving body or a limb in an attempt to force it beyond its normal range of motion. This stretch is done by bouncing into a stretched position. Advantages are that it uses the full range of motion, increased tendon elasticity and increased flexibility levels. However disadvantages are that there is a high risk of injury and it fails to allow stretched muscles time to adapt to stretched position.
      - Passive Stretching
        
        Passive stretching is a type of stretching in which you stay in one position for a set time.
      - Isometric Flexibility
        
        Isometric stretching is a form of static stretching that involves the resistance of muscle groups through the tensing of the stretched muscles. Advantages are that it uses the full range of motion and fast way to improve static flexibility. Disadvantages are demanding sessions and higher risk of tendon damage.
  - - - Continuous for 3 mins and the bench is set at 41.3cm. Subject must maintain a rhythm of 24 steps per min for a man and 22 steps per min for a woman. 5 mins after the test the subject takes the heart rate for 15 seconds. Positives are it is not exhaustive, simple and cheap, HR is easy to monitor and it is done through a simple calculation. Negatives are the numbers are a prediction and not an actual measurement, HR is affected by many variables and step height affects people for people of differing heights
    - - Run to achieve maximum distance in 12 mins and is performed on a 400m track, cones are placed at 40m intervals. Laps and sections are counted once finished. Positives are that gender is taken into account, group testing is possible, normative data, simple and cheap and it can be done through self testing. Negatives are it is not sport specific, high motivation levels are required and is only good for healthy participants.
    - - Participant exercises on a treadmill at a gradually increasing intensity. Air breathed out is collected in a mask, enabling technicians to measure the O2 and CO2 levels at different intensities. Positives of this are direct objective measurements, accurate, valid and reliable and can be done on various ergometers. Negatives are max test to exhaustion can cause a motivation issue, only healthy people can take part in the test and equipment and software are expensive (require specialists)
    - - 20meter shuttle runs at progressive intensities and is done to a timed audio cue. It is a standardised table to calculate V02max. Positives are that it can be done in large groups, simple and cheap and published tables of V02max. Negatives are it is a prediction and is not sport specific.
  - - - Competitive
        
        Phase three - Training load decreases and there is an increase in rest days. Fitness maintenance to avoid injury.
        Phase four - 2 weeks prior tapering takes place and in this phase recovery is increased to ensure performer maintains fitness
      - Transition
        
        Focus on active rest and recuperation. Try to maintain aerobic fitness. Longer term treatment for severe injuries needs to take place.
      - Preparatory
        
        Phase one - General conditioning to develop aerobic training, mobility training
        Phase two - Consists of sport specific skills with a gradual increase in intensity
    - - Mesocycle
        
        The mid term training plan. Typically over the course of six weeks and looks to improve a specific reason related to the sport for example a rugby player may be to win the six nations tournament.
      - Microcycle
        
        Short-term typically one week to achieve a short term result. Is used for training units. For example if a sprinter were to have microcycle she will work on her sprint start as it is a small training unit of her sport
      - Macrocycle
        
        The whole training programme is over a long term period which is usually 1-4 years or for the whole season. For example the aim would be to win the rugby world cup for a rugby player.
  - - - Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
        
        It includes emphysema which is damage to lung air sacsAnd chronic bronchitis which is the long-term inflammation of airways. Chesty cough, chest infection, wheezing and breathlessness are all side effects. Lungs can become inflamed causing damage and narrow the main cause is smoking. Treatments include inhalers that cause pulmonary rehabilitation surgery or lung transplant. Inflammation causes decreasing lung elasticity, damage to the alveoli and thickened bronchial.
      - Asthma
        
        Airways can narrow and swell and may produce extra mucus. Triggers can be coughing or wheezing and this is treated through using an inhaler. Other triggers are dust, smoke and cold weather due to increased pollutants. Other ways are inflammation of the bronchial and inflammation of mucous membranes that restrict airways.
    - - Stroke
        
        Someone has a stroke every 3 minutes in the UK. It is the largest cause of complex disability. Ischaemic stroke is the blockage of the cerebral artery cutting blood supply to the brain. Hemorrhagic Stroke is when blood vessels burst within and on the brain surface
      - Atherosclerosis
        
        Buildup of fatty deposits form hard plaque on a atrial walls this causes lumen too narrow and therefore reduced blood flow happens and it increases the chance of blood clots. Causes high bp.
      - Coronary Heart Disease
        
        Results from atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries which supply heart muscles with oxygenated blood. Reduction in blood flow and oxygen supply limits the cardiac muscles ability to respire and angina.
      - Heart Attack
        
        Fatty acid breaks away from atrial walls and from a blood clot. This suddenly blocks the coronary artery causing cut-off oxygen supply and causes permanent brain damage. 30% of times are bad outcomes
- - - - More defined laws came into play, bloodsports were made illegal, rights for women to work and vote. However lawmakers were middle and upper classes and rules were made in the interest.
    - - National systems (schooling), the upper class had little interest in the class development, the working class had every little interest in education. Child labour was a common practice and after the 1850 child unemployment increased. Due to better education more people were able to understand sporting rules.
    - - Women were expected to marry and conceive and were financially dependent on men. There was no schooling for girls and because of this there were a lot of women who had no careers (later on women became teachers but received low pay).
    - - Health and loyalty workers found time off, many employees were encouraged to form factory teams. 72 hour weeks were common and workers got Saturday evenings off to play against other factories.
    - - New middle class came about, upper and middle class composed of people who had wealth and success, prices lowering meant that people can enjoy comfort of new products, there were still low wages for lower classes due to the incapability to produce goods, many of the upper class attended private schools, fewer diseases as people lived together.
      - Amateurism and Professionalism
        
        Played by amateurism and spectated and bet on by professionals. Amateurism suited the upper class and middle class, in cricket amateurs and professionals played together. Working class men played football and rugby against team amateurs. Golf rules were written in 1860 - amateurs played for fun and professionals plated for money.
    - - Canals, bicycles. In the 1830’s railways had a large impact on sport and allowed for national sports to be played.
  - - - Education act of 1944 - spiritual, mental and physical developments in community
      - Education act of 1965 - promotes spiritual, mental, cultural and physical development of pupils
      - Education became about the whole person
      - Before the introduction of comprehensive schools (1965) there were grammar schools, secondary modern schools and secondary technical schools
      - Grammar schools often emulated the public school provision of sport
      - Sport became part of education legislation. Extra - curricular activities promoted sport
    - - Working class men began spectating sports from pubs.
        
        Pub became the center of all sporting activity. Drinking environment
        
        Important role in morale in the first world war. Unemployed and unskilled public were not spectators. Inter war depressions due to unemployment and professional sport struggled. Growing spectatorism made way for better facilities
    - - Pub was the centre of all sporting activity for working class men
      - Crowds were male dominant
      - Work class women were excluded from professional sport due to time and money
      - 1918 - women over 30 could vote
      - Laws were changed to ensure there was equality in employment and sport
      - Professional sport was mainly watched by male skilled worker and a few middle class woman
    - - Cruel sports were cancelled apart from fox hunting and shooting. Spectators paid to watch. Fixture days were known on Saturdays and no longer on holidays. Boxing competitors wore gloves compared to bare knuckle fighting.
    - - Men played as well as watched sport
      - Britain offered many opportunity=ies in other sports such as water polo in public baths
      - Key factor in darts and dominoes, billiards flourished in side pubs
      - Land available was heavily used
      - Gradual increase in leisure time (employment laws).Space played a key part in sport
    - - Gradual increase in leisure time (employment laws). Space played a key part in sport and land was used for pitches.
      - Men played as well as watched sport. Britain offered many opportunities in other sports such as water polo in public baths. Key factor in darts and dominoes, billiards flourished in side pubs
    - - Olympics played a massive part in the promotion of travel as the members of the public would travel abroad to support teams and help to promote tourism in the host country. There was an introduction to both private and public transport. Private transport being private planes which were mainly accessible by the rich. Then public transportation is the trains and buses we see daily.
  - - - The upper classes were educated and literate in pre-industrial Britain. This was in sharp contrast to the peasant classes, which were mostly uneducated and illiterate. This characterised the types of activities that both classes were involved in during the period of pre-industrial Britain.The upper classes who could read and write could read and understand the rules of more sophisticated activities like real tennis.
        Whereas the peasant class were involved with activities that were simple and unsophisticated with few rules, such as mob football.
    - - Pre-industrial Britain involved the lower-class peasants working very long and exhausting hours labouring on the land. There was little appetite for physical activities because of exhaustion from work. Therefore, many activities were often confined to festivals or holy days. The shortage of transport and opportunities influenced the activities of the peasants because they had to be short-lasting, immediately entertaining and localised. The upper classes had more time on their hands and could therefore be involved in activities that were longer lasting. Fox hunting, for example, was a popular activity for the upper classes.
    - - Pre-Industrial Britain had little formal law and order that shaped the activities they took part in. The peasant classes would be more involved in violent activities such as bare knuckled fighting or animal fighting, reflecting the lack of order in activities and cruelty to animals in bloodsport. Mob football also had few rules which reflected the lack of law and order.
    - - Horse and cart main transport, most had to walk. Roads were appalling so people didn’t travel far. This influenced activities developing locally. The upper classes had more opportunities to travel further by horse and carriage they could get to facilities such as tennis courts. Some would build facilities at their stately homes.
    - - Women, or mothers, were also responsible for raising and educating their children. In addition, they were responsible for cooking and feeding the family. Women were expected to tend the garden, cook for the family, take care of the children, and see that their husbands’ needs were met. Women could not vote, own land while married, go to a university, earn equal wages, enter many professions, and even report serious cases of domestic abuse. Men were usually in charge of all the finances involved in the household and did most of the work to financially support the family. It was common for a man to be well educated and have work outside of the household. The patriarch made decisions on behalf of the family, such as whether his wife could work outside the home and whether the children could attend school. He was the owner of all the property and monetary values in the household.
    - - The upper class had much more time and money so had more opportunities for involvement. They could afford horses, equipment and appropriate clothing e.g. fox hunting. Activities like tennis were expensive and were exclusive to the upper classes that had the land and money
  - - - Sport legislation is more effective
      - Rights for spectators and their safety
      - Laws regarding aggressive players both on and off the pitch
      - Laws to protect and litigate against referees and officials
      - Fans can be banned due to hooliganism
      - Laws to cover misuse of drugs, match fixing and missconduct
      - Laws are in place to prevent discrimination against gender and race
      - Transgender can be recognised as their aquired gender
    - - Access to university based on exams and grades
      - Increase in sport qualifications
      - 4.2% attend grammar schools
      - 5.2% attend middle class
      - 86.8% of children attend comprehensive schools
    - - Still a difference between men and women participation levels
      - Some still believe that sport is unfeminine
      - Certain activities are mainly linked to a gender
      - More women are interested in health and activities
      - Participation rates of men are growing
      - Increase in female presenters
      - Fewer incidents of discrimination against women
    - - Technologically based working places have made for more time due to reduction in time for labour
      - More flexible conditions have increased participation
      - Participations levels have decreased by 125,000 since 2012
      - Still a significant financial pressure on parts of the population
      - Global recessions have prevented disposable incomes
      - Less money being spent of sport (spectators decrease)
      - Gym memberships have increased
      - More affordable prices and memberships
    - - Class systems are very fluid
      - Social mobility can be achieved through sport
      - Media supports and promotes role models
      - Working class can became professionals
      - Tennis is associated with middle class
      - Participation of 16 year olds and over has become greater than those from high socio-economical backgrounds
      - Certain sports are more associated with one class
      - Amateurs and professionals are mixed between a variety of sports and classes
      - More diverse backgrounds related to class for example ethnicity
    - - Transport has greatly improved meaning most family households have access to a car
      - Participants are more likely to travel by car, bus or rialto engage sport and spectators
      - Cheap flights have also contributed to more travels abroad to compete in sport competitions or spectate
- - - - Mexico City 1968 ‘Black Power’ demonstration
        
        In 1968 the civil rights movement was at its highest with Martin Luther King and Malcolm X making their voices heard. Two black athletes supporting the USA team made a power movement of the black power salute. This salute was done at the medal ceremony for the 200m race.The athletes wore a black glove, black socks and one shoe to show it was related to the movement. The two men upon arrival home both lost their jobs and their actions were both congratulated and tarnished.
      - Munich 1972 Palestinian terrorist
        
        At the time there was both a religious and territory war between Israel and Palestine. There was decreased security at the event in Moscow as Germany wanted a positive game compared to when they last hosted.However 8 terrorists broke into the Olympic Village and took 11 Israeli athletes hostage. They made a request for 234 palestines imprisoned in Israel to be released. All 11 athletes died and 5 out of 8 terrorists died.
      - Moscow 1980 boycott lead by USA
        
        The Cold War was ongoing and there was the dispute of capitalism vs communism. The US and the Soviet Union were in a cold war. The Afghanistan leader was at threat of being overthrown so the Soviet Union's sent troops in to support the leader. This led to backlash from both Britain and the USA. Margret Thatcher (Britain's prime minister) released a statement saying she believes in response to the event teams should withdraw from the event if troops are not withdrawn. Jimmy Carter USA’s president agreed with the statement. The Soveit Union did not remove troops. Some British athletes withdrew from the events while some went. If they won an event the Olympic flag would be raised instead of their country's flag and the Olympic song would be played instead of the national anthem. In total 81 countries withdrew and there was a total of 6,000 (out of 10,000 expected) who withdrew
      - Los Angeles 1984 boycott by Soviet Union
        
        There was a financial disaster at the time, which meant many countries were unable to host. LA hosted and the event was privately funded (first Olympics to be and first to make a profit). The Soviet Union boycotted the event as they claimed there was too much commercialisation of the games and there was a lack of security. Many people believe that it was a tit for tat response. Because Soviet Union withdrew as did Cuba, Hungary and Poland. The Soviet Union also claimed that USA was using the event as political
      - Berlin 1936, Third Reich Ideology
        
        Hitler's ideology of the superior race. The Olympics were held in Berlin before the war. Hitler used this event as promotional propaganda to promote this race ideology. Lutz, an athlete participating, was the main face of the propaganda as he supported the characteristics.Hitler let one jewish high jumper compete to avoid being accused of discrimination. However his ideology was undermined due to Jesse Owens, a young black athlete who won four medals at the games. Lutz was the first one to congratulate Owens on his win. Hitler refused to award Owens his medal.
  - - - Money bought in used for improvements locally
      - Give pride to host nation - ‘nation building’
      - Improved use of facilities by locals
      - Improvements to transport systems
      - Accommodation built
      - Other areas may not get the same attention as host area
      - Local inhibitions may have to vacate land being used for sport venues and some places exploit low labour costs
    - - Increase in income to host country
      - More jobs created through building of facilities
      - Infrastructure and support jobs for the event
      - Increase in tourism
      - Commercial benefits related to goods held
      - Expensive to host a global event/bid to host
      - Event can cost more than the profits- leading to economic loss
      - Jobs created for global events are temporary
    - - Raises the profile of the sport
      - New and upgraded sporting venues
      - Focus the attention on minority sports
      - Funding for certain sports
      - Increase in sponsorship and commercial income
      - Short bursts of participation
      - Facilities for events may not be used after
      - Lesser known non-global sports suffer
      - Sports deviance likely to be highlighted in the media
    - - Country can use event as ‘shop window’ for their culture and raise countries status
      - Individuals, political parties and leaders can gain credit and obtain more votes if bid to host is granted
      - Staging a global event can bring unity to the country. Sense of purpose and put political matters aside.
      - If costs are too high, becomes a political disadvantage with a loss in votes