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Glacial Systems and Landscapes - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Debris flows through glaciers e.g. from surface storage to landforms.
      - Meltwater flows through glaciers e.g. from supraglacial lakes to channel storage
    - - Rock is stored in or on glaciers
      - Meltwater is stored on and within the glacier e.g. in supraglacial lakes
      - The main store is ice in the glacier itself
    - - With glaciers that end at the sea or a lack, iceberg calving can occur
      - Snow can be blown away by strong winds
      - Ice and snow can sublimate to water vapour
      - Surface snow can melt and evaporate
      - Ice can melt and flow out of the glacier as meltwater
    - - Rocks (collected from when the glacier carves out the landscape, or that have fallen from the glacier above)
      - Sublimation of water vapour from the air (the formation of ice crystals)
      - Condensation of water vapour from the air, which then freezes
      - Snow (from precipitation or avalanches)
- - - - Glacial environments are areas of land permanently covered by ice (glaciers/ ice sheets)
      - Soil and vegetation: there is no exposed soil due to permanent ice and so there are very few plants, although algae and moss may grow on the surface of glaciers during summer.
      - Climate: temperatures are cold enough for ice to be present all year round but may be warm enough in summer for meltwater to affect glaciers. Most cold environments have high snowfall, but in extremely cold areas, glaciers can persist even with low snowfall.
    - - Polar areas surround the North and South Poles. Much of the Arctic polar environment consists of the northern land areas of Asia, North America and Europe.
      - Climate: polar areas are very cold (<10 degrees C), with low precipitation (<100mm annually).
      - Soil: much of the soil is covered by ice but where soil is exposed, it's thin and nutrient poor. There is normally a layer of permafrost beneath the soil.
      - Vegetation: there are very few plants, including lichens and mosses found on rocks and some grasses in warmer areas.
    - - Periglacial environments are places where the temperature is frequently or constantly below freezing, but which are not covered by ice.
      - Climate: cold with fairly low precipitation (380mm or less). There are clear seasons (brief, mild summers and long, cold winters).
      - Soil: soil is thin, acidic and not very fertile, and there is normally a permafrost layer.
      - Vegetation: plants grow slowly and not very tall- grasses are the most common plants. Some small, short trees grow in sheltered areas.
    - - Alpine environments are cold areas of land at an altitude above the treeline.
      - Alpine environments may include areas of glacial and periglacial conditions
      - Climate: winters are cold but summers can be mild. Temperature decreases as altitude increases. Snowfall can be high.
      - Soil: when ice melts in summer, soil is exposed in some areas. Higher up, land is permanently covered by snow and ice, and periglacial soils are present lower down.
      - Vegetation: seasonally exposed soil means plants can grow e.g. grasses and alpine flowers.
  - - - The Arctic polar environments can either be defined by the Arctic circle (66^N) or by the 10^C July isotherm
      - The polar environment around the South Pole is defined by the 10^ January isotherm.
    - - Found at high latitudes (e.g. the northern parts of Asia, North America and Europe) and high altitudes (e.g. around ice masses in mountain ranges).
    - - Found at high altitudes at any latitude
    - - Can be found in polar and alpine settings. The two most significant areas are the ice sheets and ice shelves of Antarctica and Greenland.
- - - - When glaciers are in a hollow, they move in an arc shape, which is called rotational flow.
      - Most cold-based glaciers move through internal deformation; ice crystals shift past each other, causing the ice to bend and warp so it can flow downhill. There are two mechanisms of internal deformation- intergranular and intragranular movement
        
        Intergranular movement is when individual ice crystals orientate and align themselves in the direction of ice movement, allowing them to slide past one another.
        
        Intragranular movement is when individual ice crystals become deformed/fractured due to intense stress within ice, that are exerted by the glacier's mass under the influence of gravity. The ice gradually deforms and moves downhill in response to gravity
      - At the head of the glacier, the valley is steep, so there is a strong gravitational force pulling the ice downwards; this makes the ice move quicker, creating more friction. This causes the ice to fracture into thick layers, which then slip downwards. This is called extensional flow and forms crevasses
      - Lower down the glacier, ice moves slower as there is less gravitational pull. The faster ice from the head of the glacier pushes down on the slower ice, compressing it. The high pressure causes the ice to fracture into layers, causing them to slip forwards. This is called compressional flow, and closes any previously opened crevasses.
      - Warm-based glaciers mainly move by basal sliding, which is when meltwater beneath the glacier allows it to slide.
      - Ice movement can be impacted by gravity, friction, mass of ice, meltwater and temperature of ice.
    - - Nivation
        
        When snow gets into a hollow in the ground, it can increase the size of the hollow
        
        When temperatures fluctuate around 0*C (common in periglacial regions), frequent freezing and thawing occurs
        
        Every time the ice freezes, it expands, so frost shattering causes rocks to break away from the base of the hollow. When the snow melts, the meltwater carries the bits of broken rock away.
        
        Slopes collapse because they're waterlogged and have been eroded. The material is washed away by meltwater
        
        Eventually the hollow becomes deeper and wider
        
        Nivation makes hollows deeper by freezing and thawing. These can become corries.
      - Frost action/ freeze-thaw weathering
        
        Frost action occurs in areas where there's moisture and temperatures fluctuate above and below freezing
        
        Water from rainfall or melting enters the joints and crevices in rocks and cliff faces
        
        When the temperature drops below 0*C, the water in the cracks freezes and expands.
        
        Over time, repeated freeze-thaw action weakens the rocks and causes pieces to fall off.
    - - Plucking: ice in contact with rock surfaces can thaw slightly then refreeze around rocks protruding from the valley sides and floor. When the glacier moves forward, it plucks the rocks away from the valley sides and floor.
      - Abrasion: debris carried along by the glacier can scrape material off the valley walls and floor.
      - The amount and rate of erosion is increased by:
        
        less resistant rock
        
        thicker glaciers
        
        fast speed
        
        lots of debris
    - - Supraglacial material is carried on top of the glacier's surface
      - Englacial material is carried within the body of the glacier
      - Subglacial material is moved along at the base of the glacier
    - - The unsorted mixture of material deposited by a glacier is called till or boulder clay. It consists of everything from massive boulders to pebbles and clay, and any size of till can be dropped anywhere.
      - Lodgement till is spread onto the valley floor beneath the ice by moving glaciers
      - Ablation till is deposited by the glacier as it melts, so it is usually dropped near the glacier snout
      - Till points in the direction that the glacier is flowing
      - Till is often deposited as landforms called moraine
- - - - A steep-sided ridge, formed when two corries lie back to back or alongside each other.
    - - Formed when more than two corries develop on a mountain, with the remaining central mass being eroded by frost-shattering to create a sharp appearance.
    - - These are deep and wide steep-sided valleys with flat bottoms, formed by the glacial erosion of V-shaped valleys. They generally have a stepped, long profile, and may end abruptly at their heads in a steep wall, known as trough end.
    - - These are either pre-glacial tributary river valleys that were not glaciated, or smaller tributary glacial valleys. These would have been eroded less deeply by a smaller glacier and so when the glacier melts, the valleys are left at a higher level than the main glacial trough. Waterfalls are often found here.
    - - These are formed when ridges of land (spurs) that stick out into the main valley are chopped off (truncated) by the glacier.
    - - Tarns are small lakes which are formed it interglacial periods from meltwater and rainwater.
      - Corries are initially formed by nivation acting in small hollows, which are then enlarged. As the hollow grows, the snow becomes deeper and more compressed, forming firn and then ice. Plucking, which causes the back wall to become steeper, combined with rotational flow, abrades the floor of the hollow, deepening the corrie. As the hollow becomes deeper, the thinner ice at its edge doesn't produce the same amount of downcutting and a rock lip develops.
    - - Roches moutonnées are formed as the glacier moves over small mounds of resistant rock. The stoss slope (up-valley) is polished by abrasion and the lee slope (down-valley) is made jagged by plucking. These are generally up to a few tens of metres long and less than 5m high.
  - - - Drumlins are half-egg shaped hills of till, which can be up to 1.5 km long and 100m high. The upstream (stoss) end is wide and tall, and the downstream (lee) end is narrow and long. They are often found in groups (swarms) and are formed from unsorted till.
    - - Erratics are rocks that have been picked up by a glacier or ice sheet, carried along and dropped in an area of completely different geology.
    - - Terminal moraines
        
        These are the main type of moraine, which is found where the snout of the glacier reached its furthest extent downstream. They are a ridge or mound of material stretching across a glacial valley and are generally crescent-shaped. They are formed from unsorted till that is deposited when the ice melts during a period of snout standstill.
      - Recessional moraines
        
        These are formed along the length of the valley as the glacier retreats, marking points where the retreat paused for some time.
      - Push moraine
        
        These are formed during glacier advance when previously deposited moraine is pushed forwards up into a mound
      - Lateral moraine
        
        This is deposited where the sides of the glacier were
      - Medial moraine
        
        This is deposited in the centre of the valley where two glaciers converge; the two lateral moraines join together.
    - - Till plains are wide areas of generally flat relief created by a till sheet.
  - - - Meltwater channels can be classified according to where they flow in relation to the glacier: supraglacial (on top), marginal (on the side), englacial (in the middle), sub-marginal (on the lower side), or subglacial (on the bottom)
      - Subglacial streams are able to flow upstream due to hydrostatic pressure
      - Only meltwater flowing in channels in contact with the bedrock floor leaves any erosional trace in the post-glacial landscape
    - - These are mounds of fluvio-glacial material (sorted and often stratified), They are triangular deposits left when meltwater flows into a lake dammed up in front of the glacial snout by recessional moraine deposits.
      - Kame terraces are piles of deposits left against the valley wall by meltwater streams that run between the glacier and valley sides. They look like lateral moraine but they're sorted material.
    - - Eskers are long, sinuous ridges of sorted and stratified material that run in the direction of ice advance. They are believed to be deposits made by sub-glacial streams. When the glacier retreats and the stream dries up, the load remains as an esker, showing where the glacial tunnel used to be.
    - - These are found in front of the glacier's snout and are deposited by meltwater streams issuing from the ice. They consist of material carried by the glacier, which was then picked up, sorted and dropped by running water. The coarsest material travels the shortest distance, while the finer sediment is carried further. The deposits are also layered vertically, reflecting the seasonal flow of meltwater streams.
      - Meltwater streams that cross the outwash plain are braided since the channels become choked with coarse material.
      - Kettle holes are small depressions on outwash plains filled with lakes or marshes, formed when blocks of ice were washed onto the plain, melted and left a gap in the sediments.
      - The Skeidarár Sandur in southern Iceland is a vast outwash plain from the Vatnajokull icecap. It features:
        
        Deep accumulations of black gravel, sand and silt originating from the local volcanic rock
        
        Constantly shifting braided streams, with evidence of abandoned channels as the seasonally changing discharge levels affect erosion and deposition rates
        
        very sparse vegetation and little evidence of human habitation
        
        ridges or steps close to the glacier snout which may be a result of kames or kettle features
    - - Lakes can form in front of glaciers when meltwater streams get dammed by terminal moraine.
  - - - This can either be caused by frost heave or frost contraction and it is the arrangement of stones on the surface in circles, polygons or stripes.
        
        Frost heave happens when water underneath stones freezes and expands, forcing the stones upwards. Once they reach the surface, the roll down to the edges of the mounds that have formed, creating circles around them, or polygons when the mounds are closer together. Lines form if the mounds are on a slope over 6* and the stones roll downhill.
        
        Frost contraction causes the ground to crack in polygon shapes, The cracks get filled in with stones, forming polygon patterns on the surface.
    - - When temperatures drop very low in winter, frost contraction occurs, creating cracks in the permafrost. When the active layer of permafrost thaws in spring, meltwater fills these cracks and freezes in the permafrost layer (called an ice vein). Ice wedges can be widened over time as more frost contraction occurs in the same place.
    - - These are conical hills with a core of ice. Pingos can be as large as 80m high and 500m wide. They can be classified as open or closed systems
        
        Open-system pingos form when there's discontinuous permafrost. Groundwater is forced up through the gaps in permafrost and water collects together and freezes. This forms a core of ice that pushes the ground above it upwards. AKA East Greenland type
        
        Closed-system pingos form in areas of continuous permafrost where there is a lake at the surface. The lake insulates the ground below so it remains unfrozen, but when the lake dries up, the ground is no longer insulated. The permafrost advances around the area of unfrozen ground, causing water to collect in the centre of the unfrozen ground. When this freezes, an ice core is formed and the ground is pushed upwards. AKA MacKenzie Delta type
    - - Blockfields are expanses of loose rocks, formed in place by frost shattering of the bedrock
    - - Since permafrost is impermeable, when the active layer melts, meltwater can't drain away. This means that the active layer becomes waterlogged and heavy and flows easily when there is a gradient; this is called solifluction. If there are varying gradients, one section of soil may move faster than the soil around it, forming a tongue-shaped lobe.
    - - Terracettes form when vegetation interrupts soil moving down a slope due to frost creep or another mass movement process. This causes a flatter area to build up behind the obstruction, leading to a series of step-like terraces.
    - - This landscape occurs when ice on the ground (e.g. pingos) melts, causing the ground to collapse and holes to form. These holes become filled with water, creating an uneven, marshy landscape.
- - - - Oil extraction
        
        Oil spills can occur during transport of oil from the area e.g. when the Exxon Valdez oil tanker crashed off the coast of Alaska in 1989 and 40 million litres of oil spilt into the ocean, killing 250,000 birds and fish
        
        Oil spills can occur if pipelines leak; between 1977 and 1994 there were an estimated 30-40 spills annually from the Trans-Alaska pipeline
        
        Oil contaminates soils and kills all plants that grow in it, destroying the ecosystem for wildlife.
        
        Greenpeace estimates that the Russian oil industry spills more than 30 million barrels on land each year, and every 18 months, more than four million barrels enter the Arctic Ocean, killing wildlife, poisoning the water, and destroying the livelihoods of local indigenous people
      - Tourism
        
        Large cruise ships increase pollution (from the ships and tourists) and tourists and tourism developments disrupt wildlife and damage habitats, reducing biodiversity
        
        Tourism in European alpine environments has increased due to higher wealth and mobility and leisure time for many. E.g. 120 million people visit the Alps annually. The most destructive human impacts are associated with the ski industry and increases in adventure tourism as it can lead to some illegal developments in environmentally fragile areas. This can result in habit loss, a major disturbance to wildlife and a threat to diversity.
      - Mining
        
        This can lead to ground and surface water contamination (by chemical used during mining or by releasing the materials being mined into the environment), and it produces both solid waste and wastewater that needs to be removed of; this waste may be released into the environment, polluting it
      - Hydroelectric power production
        
        Hydroelectric dams can block the migration patterns of fish, preventing them from reaching spawning grounds and thus decreasing the populations. Dams can also heat up the water, endangering fish.
      - Fishing
        
        Fishing can disrupt food chains and overfishing of a species can seriously deplete its population
        
        Bottom trawling is carried out in the Gulf of Alaska, the Greenland Sea and the Barents Sea. It hugely disrupts the ecosystem
  - - - Natural causes
        
        Variations in the Earth's axial tilt and eccentricity, which affects the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface
        
        Meteorite impact
        
        Volcanic activity (alters composition of gases in the atmosphere)
        
        Changes in oceanic circulation
        
        Plate movement (redistribution of land masses, affecting amounts of absorption and reflection)
        
        Changes in solar activity (the solar constant and sunspot activity)
      - Human causes
        
        Changes in atmospheric composition, especially of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (from agriculture, transport, industry, energy production and waste)
        
        Deforestation (trees act as a major carbon store)
    - - Predicted future change
        
        Highest expected temperature change to be in the highest northern latitudes
        
        Average global temperatures could rise between 1.4 and 5.8* by 2100
        
        Latitudes between 40N and 70N could see temperature rises of 5-8* by 2100, due to ice loss and therefore a reduced albedo effect
        
        Permafrost to thaw to increasing depths
        
        Could trigger a positive feedback loop called the permafrost carbon feedback, since the melting of permafrost would release methane
        
        A 6* temperature rise in the Arctic by 2100 would lead to a 30-85% loss of permafrost
        
        Thawing permafrost could permanently change local ecosystems and hydrology and increase the risk of wildfires and soil erosion. It may also cause social and economic impacts if it affects infrastructure, such as the collapse of buildings or the melting of ice roads.
        
        Further decrease in extent of sea ice
        
        The UN predicts that the Arctic could be free of sea ice by 2100, and Antarctic sea ice may decrease at similar rates. This will affect ocean circulation, and thus major climate patterns of the world.
        
        Shrinking of Greenland ice sheet, leading to sea level rise
        
        The ice sheet is expected to completely melt by 2100, contributing to a projected sea level rise by 2100 of 18-59 cm above levels in 1990. Thermal expansion is also a concern.
        
        Possible growth of Antarctic ice sheet due to higher temperatures
        
        Warmer temperatures could increase the amount of precipitation. The extent of the ice sheet may also increase due to acceleration of glacial movement to the sea.
        
        Increased issues of invasive species in warmer tundra environments
        
        This could increase extinction rates of indigenous species, and could affect traditional lifestyles of indigenous populations
        
        Small temperature increases significantly impact fragile environments
        
        20-30% of species in tundra ecosystems could be at risk of extinction from a 1.5-2.5* increase in temperatures
      - Predicted impacts that are currently occurring
        
        Loss of sea ice
        
        Arctic ice is becoming thinner, making it more vulnerable to enhanced rates of melting in the future (albedo effect)
        
        Accelerated sea level rise
        
        During the 20th century, sea level rise was approximately 1.7mm annually but the current average rate is 3mm per year.
        
        Thermal expansion and increased volumes of water contribute to the increase
        
        Longer, drier summers
        
        Longer Arctic summers are thinning the ice dramatically- an estimated 40% thinning since 1960s
      - Observable impacts
        
        Shrinking glaciers
        
        Millions of people rely on glacial meltwater as their freshwater supply
        
        Despite a short period of advance in the 1970s, ice mass has been lost at an unprecedented rate since
        
        Globally, 90% of glaciers are losing ice mass
        
        Reduced ice on rivers and lakes
        
        Early melting increases flood risk
        
        In the northern USA, most lakes are freezing later and thawing earlier than 150 years ago
        
        Many isolated communities and the oil and gas industries rely on frozen lakes and rivers to transport vital supplies
        
        Shifting plant and animal ranges
        
        A poleward shift in major high-latitude northern tree belts, e.g. the taiga and boreal conifer forests, is predicted
        
        Changes to migration patterns of bird and butterfly species have been observed
  - - - These people face human challenges as well as physical ones:
        
        A shortage of labour and skills due to a low population density
        
        Increasing unpredictability of climate events e.g. late winter freezes and early spring melts.
        
        Remoteness and inaccessibility
        
        Lack of employment and limited education opportunities after secondary level
        
        Absence of modern conveniences common in urban areas
        
        A feeling of economic or political neglect from national government
        
        Impacts from outside on natural resources that are relied upon e.g. climate change, commercial fishing
    - - The Inuit people (areas of North America) have adapted all aspects of their lives to adapt to the harsh environment:
        
        Lifestyle
        
        Shelter
        
        Food
        
        Transport
        
        They generally live in small communities, spread over large geographical areas (low population densities) to avoid putting stress on the natural environment. They are often nomadic but also follow migration patterns of animals.
        
        In summer they build portable tents out of driftwood and seal skins. In winter they build more substantial shelter, such as snowhouses or log-and-sod houses.
        
        Inuit make the most of the short summers by hunting, gathering and preserving as much food as they can. Many indigenous communities have adapted to be able to eat raw meat and all parts of any prey are used to avoid waste.
        
        In winter, dog sleds are used on the frozen landscape, while kayaks or umiaks are used in the summer.
    - - Smaller buildings can be elevated above the ground on piles driven into the permafrost. The gap below the building allows air to circulate and removes heat that would otherwise be conducted into the ground.
      - Utilidors have been built in larger settlements. These are insulated boxes, raised above the ground that carries water supplies, heating pipes and sewers between buildings. Pipes cannot be buried underground because of the damage that would be caused by freezing and thawing in the upper soil layers.
      - Larger structures can be built on aggregate pads, which are layers of coarse sand and gravel, 1-2m thick. This substitutes the insulating effect of vegetation and reduces the transfer of heat from the building to the ground.
  - - - Hunting: over exploitation
      - Transport: risks of spillages from oil and gas transport, and road vehicles damaging the ground
      - General air pollution
      - Research: even limited people will have an impact due to transport and dealing with waste etc.
      - Tourism: vegetation removal, litter and and waste don't easily degrade
  - - - Military and nuclear activity in Antarctica is banned
      - Scientific research is protected and international cooperation between scientists is promoted
      - Rules managing tourist and research activities
      - Manages sovereignty disputes
    - - Six species of seal cannot be caught or killed
      - Seal numbers managed to be ecologically balanced
      - Any scientific research into the seals is controlled and research must be shared
    - - Aims to conserve marine life
      - Developed the 'ecosystem approach' to managing fisheries
      - Established following concerns over increased krill catches
    - - Implements the Antarctic Treaties into UK law
      - UK citizens require permits from the government to conduct most activities in Antarctica
    - - Protects the aesthetic and scientific value of wilderness
      - Bans all activity relating to mineral resources other than scientific research
      - All activities require environmental assessment
      - Antarctic Specially Protected Areas established
      - The mining ban cannot be repealed without binding regulations in a future treaty
      - Arbitrates international disputes about Antarctica
      - Created a Committee for Environmental Protection
      - Member states to be prepared to respond to emergencies
  - - - Antarctica is believed to have large reserves of coal and oil as well as precious minerals but mining is banned by the Antarctic Treaty until at least 2048
    - - If tourism was encouraged as an economic activity, there would be much more infrastructure built. The demand for adventure tourism is increasing.
    - - The waters of the southern ocean still have plentiful fish stocks, although it's possible that fishing levels are already undermining conservation levels despite strict regulations.
- - - - Norwegian territory in Arctic Ocean, roughly 1,000km north of Norway
      - It is the most northerly permanently inhabited archipelago in the world
      - It has a dry climate with low annual rainfall (200mm) and low temperatures (5-6° in summer and -16 - -40° in winter)
      - 60% of Svalbard is currently covered in ice, 30% is barren ground, and 10% is vegetated. Permafrost exists nearly everywhere.
      - Nearly all of Svalbard's population of 2,700 live in the town of Longyearbyen on Spitzbergen
    - - Coal mining
        
        The Industrial Revolution in Europe sparked an interest in Svalbard's known reserves of coal, gold, marble, copper and other minerals. However, there has been very limited mineral extraction apart from coal
        
        Coal mining presents many challenges due to the extremely cold working conditions, long hours of winter darkness, challenging sea conditions that affect transportation and the remoteness of mines.
        
        Coal production reached nearly 500,000 tonnes in 1948, after having only reached Norway for the first time in 1899
        
        Since the centre of the coal mining industry was the Longyear Valley, a mining settlement was established in Longyearbyen in 1906. However, as coal prices fell in following decades many of these mines closed; now, only Mine 7 is operational, which feeds the power station in Longyearbyen. It provides all of Svalbard's energy but has become inefficient
        
        The majority of present day coal mining takes place at Sveagruva. The state-owned mining company Store Norske, employs around a third of all workers on Svalbard, but they are having economic and political problems that could be disastrous for the community
      - Fishing
        
        The cold waters of the Barents Sea (south of Svalbard) are very rich fishing grounds, with over 150 species of fish
        
        Storms and sea ice make fishing very difficult and dangerous
        
        Norway and Russia jointly control and monitor fishing practices to ensure it is sustainable and to protect it from pollution and exploitation
      - Polar research
        
        Norway, Russia and Poland all run permanent research stations in Svalbard.
      - Tourism
        
        Since the opening of the airport at Longyearbyen in 1975, tourism has significantly increased.
        
        As early as the 1820s, people were visiting the archipelago on cruise ships for hunting
        
        In 2015, 130,000 people visited Longyearbyen, of whom 38,000 were cruise ship passengers.
        
        Around 90% of land-based visitors travel from Norway
        
        Most people visit Svalbard for the natural environment (glaciers, fjords, wildlife) or the historical development of the islands. Adventure tourism is becoming increasingly popular (hiking, snow mobiles and kayaking) and people travel in winter to see the northern lights
        
        Longyearbyen has experienced significant growth in tourist facilities such as hotels, shops, restaurants and tour operators. Currently around 480 local people directly benefit from the tourist sector.
        
        Tourism on land is limited to Longyearbyen and the immediate area, due to the high cost of road construction and maintenance (permafrost and frost action create difficulties).
    - - Resilience
        
        Poor climatic conditions (extremely low winter temperatures, long hours of darkness for half of the year, strong winds and heavy snowfall) require resilience, especially for those working in coal mines or conducting research in remote environments.
        
        Outside of Longyearbyen there is almost complete wilderness so the community is very confined
      - Mitigation
        
        People mitigate the hostile environment by wearing appropriate clothing and footwear, such as gloves and warm headgear. Layers and protection against strong winds is essential. Houses are also well insulated.
      - Adaptation
        
        Providing health and social care is an issue in remote locations and although there is a hospital and dental surgery, people may need to fly to Norway for further treatment. Elderly people are not catered for.
      - Adaptation and mitigation are required to cope with varying periods of light and dark during the year that can have psychological effects if sleep patterns are affected; the use of black-out curtains in summer and 'natural' light in winter can mitigate this.
      - The rocky terrain and permafrost present challenges to people's access of essential services, such as water, electricity and sanitation. To mitigate this, insulated pipes run above ground because underground pipes may rupture in summer with permafrost melting, or freeze during winter.