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Development - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Factors affecting the Quality of Life (don't really need to know off by heart)
        
        economic
        
        income
        
        job security
        
        enough jobs/good job prospects
        
        political
        
        politics - stable govt, democracy?
        
        conflict (civil war?)
        
        freedom
        
        corruption
        
        social
        
        transport/ability to travel
        
        technology
        
        opportunities
        
        education (quality, access to further, equality?)
        
        amenities (i.e. electricity)
        
        access to food + water
        
        sanitation
        
        services
        
        hospitals (enough?), health
        
        human rights
        
        crime
        
        happiness
        
        security
        
        freedom
        
        housing
        
        standard of living
        
        wages
        
        diet/nutrition
        
        environmental
        
        pollution + waste
        
        natural disasters (freedom from)
        
        water + food
        
        climate
        
        environments quality/hazards
      - There can be different ways of defining and measuring development - including economic, social or political factors and different people put emphasis on different aspects of quality of life which they consider to be most important
  - - - economic
        
        wealth/income
        
        growth of economy
        
        trade (surplus/deficit)
        
        cost of living
        
        unemployment rate
      - social
        
        health
        
        education
        
        housing
        
        opportunities (for leisure and recreation)
      - technological
        
        electrification
        
        internet access
        
        efficiency in farming and industry
      - cultural
        
        how happy people are with:
        
        democracy
        
        balance between traditional and imported cultures
        
        work/life balance
      - food security
        
        huge imbalance between food production and consumption, resulting in insecurity
        
        involves:
        
        availability: sufficient supply consistently available
        
        access: sufficient resources to obtain foods (i.e. can they afford it?)
        
        consumption: making appropriate use of food to support a healthy diet (range)
        
        map
        
        N America, W + Central Europe, Australia + NZ have good food security
        
        all of Africa + most of S America has at least medium risk
        
        Chile an anomaly as it has good food security
        
        Afghanistan only country in Asia to have extreme risk
        
        most extreme risk around equatorial and E Africa
        
        richer countries have good food security
        
        equatorial areas - harsher climate, and so higher risk as it is difficult to grow food + may also be at a higher risk of drought
        
        war-torn countries are also at a higher risk as countries may trade w/ them less, less money spent on agriculture, farmers at war/dying not growing crops
        other factors that lead to higher food insecurity:
        
        climate change + natural disasters
        
        poor trade
        
        high populations
      - water security
        
        Reliable access to safe drinking water for all
        
        demand for water is increasing due to an increasing population, but when there is enough water it is being wasted + polluted. Water security (esp. clean water) is becoming a major issue
        
        at any one time, half the world's hospital beds are occupied by sufferers of waterborne diseases
        
        840,000 die each year due to water related diseases
        
        750m don't have access to clean/safe water
        
        collectively women + children spend 140 million hours a day collecting water
        
        map
        
        central + SW N America have many over-exploited water sources
        
        areas around the Tropic of Cancer (N Africa, Asia, S Europe) have exploited water sources
        
        N Hemisphere has more exploited areas of water
        
        W coast of S America also many exploited areas of water
        
        Tropic of Cancer: high pressure, hot +dry -> less water
        
        Equatorial regions are warm + wet (low pressure) -> more water, less stress on resources
        other factors:
        
        dry climate
        
        high populations
        
        low technology
        
        climate change (changing natural patterns in an area that they are prepared for)
  - - - economic measures
        
        GDP - Gross Domestic Product - total value of goods and services produced within a country
        
        GNP - Gross National Product - GDP + national revenue from abroad - foreign revenue within a country
        
        GNP per capita - GNP divided by population
        
        PPP - Purchasing Power Parity - GNP converted into USD($) and factors in the cost of living
        
        problems with economic development measures:
        
        do not tell us how wealth is invested in a country
        
        do not tell us how wealth is distributed in a country
        
        conceal corruption
        
        wealth does not guarantee a good quality of life
      - other indicators of development
        
        education - no. people that complete primary/secondary
        
        freedom of speech
        
        healthcare - no. beds per capita, no. people per dr
        
        gender equality
        
        higher education - proportion that go to uni, % w/ a degree
        
        adult literacy
        
        internet access
        
        electricity
        
        methods of measuring key definitions (as a country develops this factor...)
        
        infant mortality rate (decreases) - the number of children that will not reach their first birthday, per 1000 per year
        
        birth rate (decreases) - number of live births per 1000 people in a year
        
        death rate (decreases) - number of deaths per 1000 people in a year
        
        fertility rate (decreases) - average number of children a woman will have in her lifetime
        
        life expectancy (increases) - the number of years a person on average will live, from birth
      - Human Development Index (HDI)
        
        another way of measuring development
        
        The HDI aims to provide a more representative measure of development by combining social and economic factors. We call this a composite index. It is measured on a scale of 0-1 and is endorsed by the UN
        
        Uses 4 indicators: Life expectancy at birth, Mean years of schooling, expected years of schooling, gross national income per capita
        
        strengths + weaknesses of the HDI
        
        strengths:
        
        combines social + economic factors
        
        numerical - easy comparisons/objective
        
        0-1 - easy to use
        
        endorsed by UN - widespread use
        
        weaknesses:
        
        one number for a whole country conceals inequality
        
        assumes/expects that a country can produce reliable data/a country is sophisticated enough to gather that data
        
        may not take into account enough measures/factors
        
        modern variables not included
      - inequality
        
        an issue with development indicators is that they conceal inequalities within countries
        
        The Gini Coefficient
        
        method of measuring inequality
        
        0-100 scale
        
        low value = greater equality
        
        high value = greater inequality
      - Political Corruption
        
        refers to the unfair use of powers for illegitimate personal gains
        
        diverts money and resources away from development
        
        erodes democracy and faith in government
        
        reduces transparency
        
        changes a government's priorities
        
        Corruptions Perceptions Index (CPI)
        
        measures public sector corruption
        
        up to 13 external sources used - e.g. data from World Bank etc.
        
        scale of 1-100
        
        things such as bribery, diversion of public funds, effective prosecution of corruption cases measured
        
        v. corrupt countries include Somalis and Sudan, and not corrupt (/low level of corruption) incl. Denmark and Finland
- - - - aid
        
        types
        
        international aid - involves a country (bilateral) or other organisation (multilateral) giving another country money
        
        bilateral aid - aid given from one government (country) directly to another
        
        emergency aid - aid given in times of/in response to natural disasters
        
        multilateral aid - aid given by a multinational organisation (e.g. the UN)
        
        advantages
        
        in times of disaster it can save lives and rebuild housing and livelihoods
        
        can be used for a vast range of development projects incl. in agriculture, industry and sanitation which all improve quality of life
        
        e.g. in the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, emergency aid was very useful
        
        ( countries accept this aid because of the:
        
        foreign exchange gap - countries lack money to pay for imports e.g. machinery and oil which are vital to development
        
        savings gap - large populations prevent savings being made which could be spent on industry and infrastructure
        
        technical gap - a lack of skills which is needed for a countries development )
        
        disadvantages
        
        can cause debt accumulation
        
        can create dependency on wealthy countries
        
        overall
        
        effective and helpful in the short term
        
        can create a multitude of issues in the long term and isn't very helpful for long-term development
      - intergovernmental agreements involve aid and debt relief
      - debt relief/cancellation
        
        when debts to other countries are cancelled or reduced
        
        advantages
        
        some debts are so large that the country has to spend all its money on repaying debt and not on developing - allows money to be invested where it's needed
        
        lots of debt is accumulated during dictatorships which is then unfair for subsequent governments to have to repay as it limits the country - countries become crippled by debt that isn't theirs
        
        disadvantages
        
        easily exploited
        
        unfair on the people who loaned the debt
        
        countries may become irresponsible with their debts if they think it will just be cancelled
        
        overall
        
        can be helpful in certain cases
        
        but is too easily exploited and causes problems for everyone
      - Fairtrade
        
        an organisation that pays producers a reasonable price for the goods they produce
        
        advantages
        
        fair for farmers
        
        allows farmers to escape poverty - stops the exploitation of farmers by taking away some of the profit from wealthy corporations that don't need it
        
        huge impact: 7 million people benefit from Fairtrade worldwide
        
        disadvantages
        
        can increase inequality in a country as farmers who work with Fairtrade can get much wealthier than those who do not
        
        overall
        
        very effective + good for the local population
        
        some drawbacks
        
        won't have an immediate impact, its long term benefit is huge
      - microfinance
        
        small loans given to people in LICs to help them start small businesses, typically with very low or non-existent interest rates and given to those who are normally unable to access loans
        
        advantages
        
        allows people to help themselves
        
        gives them transferrable skills
        
        creates jobs (as small businesses grow, more jobs created)
        
        disadvantages
        
        assumes some level of infrastructure so does not help the poorest
        
        overall
        
        short term benefits: provides money to the economy
        
        long term benefits: creates jobs and allows people to gain skills
        
        helps local people while empowering them to help themselves
      - note on remittances: many international migrants send money back to their families in their country of origin - these are very important source of income, exceeding aid in many developing countries
  - - - large scale
        
        undemocratic - decisions made by govt/other external groups. locals who will be affected have very little say in the process and little influence
        
        government/TNCs
        
        generic
        
        expensive
        
        impacts lots of people - can benefit lots
        
        jobs -> economic
        
        creates jobs
        
        people may have to relocate/damages communities
        
        huge, negative environmental impact
        
        e.g. HS2
    - - local
        
        more democratic - projects planned + controlled by local communities to help their local periphery area
        
        NGOs, charities, local people
        
        specific
        
        cheap
        
        impacts fewer people
        
        community based -> social
        
        use more appropriate technology
        
        environmental damage is much less
        
        benefits local communities in ways they need
        
        often promote sustainability
        
        e.g. WaterAid
- - - - Most of Africa has a lower HDI, with Central, East and West Africa having the lowest
        
        Southern Asia (India) has lower HDI as well as islands such as Indonesia and Papa New Guinea having low HDI
        
        N America, most of Europe (N,W esp), Japan, Australia and NZ all have GDP of 0.845 or higher
      - causes of uneven development:
        
        corruption - S Sudan
        
        colonisation (-> resource depletion, slavery, political instability) - DRC
        
        natural disasters - Haiti, Philippines
        
        conflict - Afghanistan, Yemen
        
        natural resources - USA
        
        economic policies - N Korea, Eritrea
        
        landlocked countries - Chad
        
        political instability
        
        harsh climate
      - examples of uneven development:
        
        Haiti - Natural Disasters Haiti is prone to natural disasters. the 2010 earthquake led to 200,000 deaths and $8bn in damages. this means that government spending is diverted to recovering from disasters rather than to its people and development. as a result of natural disasters: life expectancy decreases, lives lost, lack of farmers -> lack of food, loss of livelihood, pressure on services, govt reliance on aid -> debt
        
        USA - Natural Resources USA has the largest coal reserves - 491bn tonnes. economic -> can sell to generate income. energy -> cheap electricity increased quality of life. creates jobs. don't have to buy it from other countries
        
        North Korea - Economic Policies Border restrictions (closed door policy) mean little trade. international community not trading with you, become isolated. have to be self-reliant -> cannot import things you don't have. aid/financial support unavailable. limited/lack of variety of food -> decreases quality of life.
        
        Yemen - Conflict Since 2015 20,000 civilians killed and 10mil children facing starvation. government spending is diverted to war rather than population farmers die -> loss of food production, life expectancy decreases as men go to war, little trade, lack of education, unstable government, land now used as war zones -> less farming.
        
        South Sudan - Corruption South Sudan is one of the most corrupt nations in the world. the nation was ranked 5th on Transparency International's 2014 list of most corrupt nations. A 2012 report stated that more than $4bn in government funds has been stolen since 2005. this diverts money away and resources from development so the country develops very slowly as none is put into development - economic or social - schools or hospitals not good
        
        Chad - Landlocked Countries Have to rely on things being piped -> expensive. limited trade (who you can trade with) as no easy access to sea. countries surrounding can increase prices if they want to (e.g. high taxes). very reliant on a few countries. lack of resources. may be difficult/expensive to get some necessary items
        
        DRC - Colonisation The DRC was occupied by Belgium for over 55 years. during this time the DRC's natural resources were exploited unsustainably, with profits going back to Europe and the native population was subject to slaughter and slavery. when Belgium withdrew, the country's natural population, natural resources and political situation were all unstable
    - - the distribution of pay is un-consistent/uneven/varied across the UK
        
        western coastal areas have a low median pay (often under 17k)
        
        SE and around London have a higher median average pay
        
        anomaly in NW London - lower average pay
        
        East Anglia has a low level of development
        
        across the midlands the health quality is varies
        
        in London there is a range of health inequalities
        
        the highest level of earnings have good healthcare, but high average salary doesn't always mean good healthcare
      - causes of uneven development in the UK:
        
        Deindustrialisation - manufacturing moved abroad 'Global shift in manufacturing'. more recently, manufacturing and secondary industries have left rich countries and moved to developing countries where labour is cheaper. this has led to widespread losses of jobs, most of which are in the North, Midlands and South West (London not affected - mainly finance jobs)
        
        Deindustrialisation - closure of industries In 1984, Margaret Thatcher reduced government subsidies for the energy sector. as a result, 24 coal mines closed with over 20,000 losing their jobs. many towns and cities across the North of England were built around the coal industry and so decline was widespread (impacted some areas more than others - south unaffected)
        
        Uneven investment The majority of modern, tertiary and quaternary jobs are congregated in London and the SE. as a result FDI (foreign direct investment) from businesses and other countries tends to benefit these areas more. the government also invests more per person in the South than in peripheral areas
        
        Physical factors Remote areas and areas with challenging terrain typically have a lower quality of life due to depopulation and minimal opportunities. London and the SE is flat, well irrigated and has fertile soil reserves, so historically this area has thrived
- - - - access to housing - low incomes mean people have limited access to adequate housing - 30% of the urban population living in slums
        
        health - investment is crucial to development - 6.6mil children under 5 die each year, the WHO says most could be saved if they had access to inexpensive vaccines, clean water + sanitation
        
        education - vital for the future of sustainable development of the planet, but very difficult to educate all children in large families. 775mil people in poor countries unable to read or write. uneducated are unable to save and therefore suffer from malnutrition and debt, perpetuating the cycle of poverty
        
        employment - opportunities much more limited in developing countries, people generally work in labour intensive agriculture or the informal sector (poorly paid, long hours, no job security)
        
        technology - improved technology can bring many benefits but reaching a certain level of tech needs investment + skilled workers which is a struggle. appropriate technology is better as it is low energy + cost, can be easily operated/maintained by locals, uses local materials, involves the locals at all stages and is more specific
        
        food and water security - poor countries lack the ability to import food, innovate in agriculture or invest in rural development. Food and Agriculture estimates between 2012-14 805mil affected by undernourishment. (poor) water security causes environmental problems, puts food supplies in jeopardy, limits development + causes conflicts between countries that share a drainage basin.
      - appropriate technology - poor areas with weak infrastructure need appropriate tech rather than advanced tech. appropriate tech is tech that is better suited to a specific area's needs and capacity as it is low energy and cheaper, easily operated and maintained and is more specific to an area's needs, leading to development
        
        informal economy - the economy that is unregulated by the government, so is untaxed, built around informal employment. it is more common in developing countries as there are less job opportunities so people turn to informal employment to make money, and this makes the informal economy. jobs in the informal sector are unstable (as they have no job security or sick pay), unsafe, low paid and low skilled.