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Asian America, Incorporated Through a framework of "incorporation…

- - - - The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 shifted immigration policies from restriction to preference-based inclusion, aspiring to an ostensible global egalitarianism and democratic embodiment
        
        Bill Ong Hing, “Two Contrasting Schemes: Understanding Immigration Policies Affecting Asians Before and After 1965” from Making and Remaking Asian American Through Immigration Policy
      - Filipino exchange nurse migration
        
        This took place in the context of US attempts to maintain its global dominance during the cold war and it prefigured the post-1965 immigration of Filipino nurses to the US that so many studies have attributed it solely to the “liberalization” and immigrant "inclusion" of US immigration laws
        
        Catherine Ceniza Choy, “Your Cap Is a Passport’: Filipino Nurses and the U.S. Exchange Visitor Program”
      - In the case of Indian immigrants holding H-1B and H-4 visas, their "inclusion" in the US was often temporary and complicated by career and personal factors that led to many's return to India. The return became more appealing for the majority only after obtaining citizenship or a green card in the US so their time in the US was enveloped by a certain "temporariness" which made the return often seen as a stage
        
        Amy Bhatt, “Returnees: ‘R2I,’ Citizenship, and the Domestic Sphere”
      - After the 90s, historical injustices have been re-articulated to form around a notion of belatedness. The post-90s redress is a culture that has been embodied as an ideological matrix of juridico-political processes
        
        Lisa Yoneyama, “Transpacific Cold War Formations and the Question of (Un)Redressability,” Introduction to Cold War Ruins: Transpacific Critique of American Justice and Japanese War Crimes
      - Subject: Cold War U.S., neoliberal Asian America
        Object: post-1965 Asian immigrant, model minority
    - - 1898 Treaty of Paris
        
        President McKinley’s defense of the decision to colonize the Phillippines: as a Spanish colony, they were “unfit for self-government” and “there was nothing left for [the United States] to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplife and civilize and Christianize them
      - 1934 Tydings-McDuffie Act
        
        established the process for the Philippines, then an American territory, to become an independent country after a ten-year transition period, in the meantime excluded Filipino immigration
        
        When the Philippines became independent in 1946, Filipinos would lose their status as nationals of the US, regardless of where they lived and those in the US would be deported unless they became immigrants
        
        Between 1934 and 1946, any Filipino who desired to immigrate became subject to the immigration acts of 1917 and 1924, and the Philippines was considered a separate country with an annual quota of only 50 visas
        
        meanwhile, colonialism in the Philippines continued under the pretense of assimilationism
      - St. Louis World's Fair
        
        Exhibits at the St. Louis World’s Fair dramatically represented Filipino assimilation to proudly put imperialism on display
        
        Paul A. Kramer, “Mixed Messages at the St. Louis World's Fair”
        
        Pensionados were an exhibit of the Filipino capacity for and American success at assimilation
      - Subject: Imperial U.S., U.S. colonist
        Object: Philippines, "uncivilized" Filipinos
    - - Edward Said, Ornamentalism (1978)
      - Western scholarship about the Eastern World is inextricably tied to the imperialist societies who produced it, which makes much Orientalist work inherently political and servile to power
      - Orientalism is a deliberate and productive embodiment of the Occident by the Orient
      - The relationship between Occident and Orient is a relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of a complex hegemony, which Gramsci identifies as the form of cultural leadership where certain cultural forms predominate over others
      - Power re-creates its own fields of exercise through knowledge (knowledge and power nexus)
      - a distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts
      - While Orientalism seeks to include the Occident in discourse, it excludes women from the dominant visual definition of lesbians as butch, making femme and feminine-looking Asian women especially invisible
        
        “The assumption of normtive heterosexuality embedded in American Orienalist discourse colludes with the image of the lesbian as butch and the stereotype of bisexuals as swinging straights to virtually erase the very existence of femme bisexual Asian women” (Lee 123)
        
        Jee Yeun Lee, “Why Suzie Wong Is Not a Lesbian”
      - I’ve never known BTS super well, but over the years have grown more curious as to how the group has gained incredible global recognition with a hyper-present digital profile. BTS isn’t just a popular band or musical sensation anymore; they’re a cultural moment in history, a representation of international connectivity through social media, and perhaps, at least in part, a symbol of the modern Orient. This morning was not the first time that BTS spoke at a UN conference. They gave a speech in 2018, a virtual one in 2020, and today, another message that “relayed the experiences of the younger generation.” As a Korean American, it’s a strange feeling hearing from BTS fans all over the world just how entrenched they are in their support of the group. I remember thinking in high school that it was just a passing phase, a temporary obsession with Eastern culture. I even remember feeling like I had to detach myself from K-pop bands like BTS because I didn’t want to be perceived as “too Asian.” When thinking about the role that BTS has played on a global and digital scale for the younger generation, Said’s structure of Orientialism provides a useful lens. In today’s society, how is culture “flexible”? What underlying mechanisms of superiority exist to both propel non-Western cultural icons and also uphold Western hegemony?
      - Subject: West (Occident)
        Object: East (Orient)
    - - Source: “Princeton and Asian American Studies: A Report by the Princeton Asian American Students Association (AASA)” (2013)
      - The University's decision to include this program under the American Studies program reflects a broader compromise, one that was arguably necessary and/or inevitable in the institution-student relationship
      - Decreased emphasis on solidarity with other ethnic studies programs such as African Studies program (compares lack of resources to that tho)
    - - This label includes Pacific Islanders in name but not in body or discourse. By mapping a different history of indigenous culture, economic traffic, and settler colonialism onto one body that pretends to include Pacific Islanders but doesn’t, the Asian/Pacific Islander grouping poses the Pacific Islander body as a subject participating in a singular unification, but a disparity between definitions of the Asian American “immigrant” and the "Pacific Islander" reveals the atter to only exist as an object in a colonialist structure where the Asian American is the colonist.
      - PIs exist as only 3 percent of the imagined “AAPI” grouping; “proceeding as though the identities, histories, and categorical constructions of ‘Asian American’ and ‘Pacific Islanders’ are the same actually impedes our understanding of both, and the consequences of those distortions are far more dire for Pacific Islanders” (744-745)
      - Lisa Kahaleole Hall, “Which of These Things Is Not Like the Other: Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders Are Not Asian Americans, and All Pacific Islanders Are Not Hawaiian” (2015)
      - Things like "tiki culture," which emerged and spread across continental US in the mid-1950s coincided with the age of suburbanization, architectural modernism, and space exploration, thus it was considered an escapist fetishizing of simpler ways of life, modeled on "south seas" primitivist stereotypes
        
        Amy K. Stillman, “Pacific-ing Asian Pacific American History” (2004)
    - - Many Asian immigrants, working in the service sector, often embodied the labor of white Americans by caring for their children, homes, and food
      - A 2012 survey revealed that 2/3 of nannies, housekeepers, and home health aides were immigrants, half of whom were undocumented
        
        Rachel Aviv, “The Cost of Caring” (New Yorker, 11 April 2016)
      - Surrogate women literally embody white mothers' children
        
        The Farm by Joanne Ramos (2019)
        
        The image of a “successful career woman" which aims to include women dominates “feminist” discourses, obscuring the poor, nonwhite women upon whose backs this image is curated
      - Subjects: patients, clients, customers, mothers, white families
        Objects: nurses, domestic helpers, nail salon workers, surrogate mothers, nannies
    - - “The ‘secret war’ was a US liberal imperial strategy of militarization to promote decolonization and soveriengty at a time when the peoples of Asi, Africa, and Latin America struggled for emancipation from Western imperial powers” (Vang 28)
        
        Ma Vang, “Secrecy as Knowledge,” from Secrecy, Fugitivity, and Hmong Refugee Epistemologies
      - Military operations in Laos were masked as a form of inclusion: being for the benefit of the Laotian state and Hmong liberation
      - Subject: U.S. sovereignty
        Object: Hmong Vietnamese
    - - Often, what appears as "inclusion" is the appropriating and taking of other cultures that ultimately harms people's identities
        
        Pseudonyms in literature: “Masking one’s name is a form of deception, but it’s a socially accepted one that doesn’t require that you or I invest the work with biographical authenticity, or a belief in journalistic truth” (Rekdal 138)
        
        Paisley Rekdal, “On Cultural Appropriation - Letters One and Five”
      - Subject: Deceptive authenticity
        Object: Culture, identity
    - - At the Met Gala, Gemma Chan paid tribute to the first Chinese American movie star, Anna May Wong. Her black sequin dress was adorned with a dragon emblem, and her hair resembled a braided style that was often a part of Wong's iconic look. I have found myself struggling with the question of representation in the past year. Gemma Chan has become a champion at the forefront of Asian representation advocacy, and I am a personal fan of her acting. But as inspiring as it is to see Asian representation in the media, how far does representation go in dismantling this nation's deeply rooted seeds of white supremacy? How far does representation go when those who are "represented" are still seen in the context of whiteness? At the same time, progress becomes impossible without represented voices. In Chan's Instagram post, she says that Wong paved the way for those who came after her. Interestingly, Wong appeared on television decades before there were multiple Asian faces on screen. Wong was also exploited, filling the role of the "exotic" dragon lady or sexual temptress when Hollywood needed her. Chan's tribute to Wong asks the question: is representation, albeit exploited, necessary for a road to liberation? Is there such thing as a "net good" of policies such as the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which created both benefits and harms? Or, like Wong, will our "representation" only continue to be a cog in the American capitalist machine?
  - - - 1913 and 1920 California Alien Land Laws
        
        Yuji Ichioka, “The Early Japanese Immigrant Quest for Citizenship: The Background of the 1922 Ozawa Case,” Amerasia 4.2 (1977): 1-22
        
        Ozawa actually made the land cases crucial since the land law relied on a language on naturalization that evaded race
        
        Prohibited individual Japanese and companies, the majority of whose members or stockholders were Japanese, from purchasing agricultural land and restricted the leasing of such land to three years
        
        Effectively prohibited immigrant Asians from owning land, other Western states followed CA’s lead
        
        The 1920 California Alien Land Law also made it illegal to lease agricultural land, driving Japanese farmers out of California agriculture
        
        Japanese immigrants perceived this as a bread-and-butter/life-and-death issue as it was a serious threat to their livelihood, so they fought the law in many ways
      - The Immigration Act of 1924
        
        Mae Ngai, “The Immigration Act of 1924,” from Major Problems in Asian American History
        
        Barred the further admission of any alien ineligible to citizenship, which brought all Japanese immigration to an abrupt end
        
        Passed on the heels of Ozawa (1922) and Thind cases (1923), which solidified the concept “ineligible to citizenship” and agricultural alien land laws which drove Japanese and other Asians out of farming
        
        Completed the legal construction of “Asiatic” as a racial category, yet at a formal level this law was based on categories of nationality and not of race as it avoided explicit racial language
      - 1790 Naturalization Act
        
        Granted all “free whites” the right to claim citizenship and barred all nonwhites until after the Civil War in 1870
      - 1875 Page Act
        
        Designed to deter immigration by Asian women by making the “importation” of women for the purposes of prostitution a felony and female U.S. citizens who married an “alien ineligible to citizenship” lost their own citizenship
      - 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act
        
        First legislation to exclude immigrants on the basis of nationality, ethnicity, or race: prohibited Chinese laborers from entering the country for ten years (extended by the Geary Act in 1892)
        
        Established a precedent for excluding or limiting immigration from other Asian countries during the first few decades of the twentieth century and thus successfully halted the development of larger Asian American communities in the US
      - Chinese coolies
        
        Chinese coolies and workers were seen as a moral evil, incapable of assimilation and unworthy of citizenship (Okihiro)
      - Executive Order 9066
        
        Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor activated and reconfirmed the stereotype and fear that stirred popular anger and fostered official acquiescence
        
        2 theories of what caused this:
        
        Pressure-group theory where various West Coast groups out of self-interest pressured the government for mass evacuation
        
        Politican theory where West Coast policians for their own ends inflamed an apprehensive public
        
        Both these theories necessitated the furnishing of the Japanese body as a dangerous alien
        
        Gary Y. Okihiro, “America’s Concentration Camps”
      - Subject: citizen
        Object: alien
      - Through immigration policies and the exploitation of Chinese labor, Asian immigrations were furnished with the body of a perpetual alien, seen as an unassimilable foreigner and entirely incongruent with an existing America.
    - - The proliferation of Asian nail salon workers across the U.S. reveals not only the capitalist exploitation of Asian female bodies, but also the “ornamental appendages” defining the women: solidly colored uniforms and bibs, pinned-up hairstyles, gloves, and nail toolkits. These appendages can also include the salon’s decor, which often includes plants, colorful wallpaper, and a coat rack. Ornamentalism calls us to ask how these women then desire their own personifications in an alternative way of being, if they are first aestheticized alongside things
        
        Sarah Maslin Nir, “The Price of Nice Nails” (New York Times, 7 May 2015)
      - Anne Anlin Cheng, Ornamentalism, 2018
      - With this lens, we are able to see the construction of Asianness beyond its flesh, imagining a racialized history not just of moving bodies but also of bodies moving within their own ambiguous personhood
      - Yellow bodies are furnished alongside machines, fabrics, decorated backgrounds and other ornamental appendages
      - Ornamentalism derives itself from Edward Said’s Orientalism in that there is an inherent power structure wherever society is white, masculine, and heteronormative. Orientalism tells a story of productive coercion and reduction between the hegemon of the Occident and the construction of the Orient. But while ornamentalism also rests on a projected image which benefits American imperialism, ornamentalism refuses to let the coerced subject exist without agency, and leaves room for the objectified self to imagine her own unmaking
      - There is a classism in the language of aesthetics ("beautiful/sublime" vs. "cute/cozy"), in part due to the fact that aesthetics such as cuteness rely on nonhuman things giving human features (Ngai 832)
        
        Sianne Ngai - The Cuteness of the Avant-Garde
    - - Anna Pegler-Gordon, “Photographic Paper Sons: Resisting Immigration Identity Documentation, 1893-1943”
        
        The photographs required of Chinese immigrants were central to the enforcement of their exclusion, but also were central to the evasion of exclusion laws. Chinese immigrants were both furnished with a body and furnished themselves.
      - Slaying the Dragon
        
        Portrayals of Asians and Asian Americans in film and on TV have allowed white Hollywood to project white faces onto Asian bodies, rendering Asianness transferrable
      - Source: Life Magazine, “How to Tell Japs from the Chinese” (1941)
        
        In this literal map-like representation of visual racialization, body features are hyper-emphasized in furnishing Chinese and Japanese bodies and propelling wartime narratives. The "Chinese public servant" had a "higher bridge" and "scant beard" while the "Japanese warrior" had a "heavy beard" and "flatter nose."
      - Vincent Chin's murder sparked a push for Asian American rights advocacy, and a lot of this effort relied on the furnishing of a no longer living body, reconstructing Vincent Chin from photographs and family members' stories
        
        Christine Choy, Who Killed Vincent Chin? (1987)
    - - Junaid Rana, “Tracing the Muslim Body: Race, US Deportation, and Pakistani Return Migration” (2013)
      - A process of racialization after 9/11 has made the visible Muslim body reliant on objects that render people into terrorism, panic, patriarchy, Taliban, fanatic, radical, barbaric, etc.
- - - - The "model" and "minority" have been combined into one substance, where Asian Americans are viewed as NOT the problem minority but rather an achievable portrait of perfection that obscures histories of oppression and suppresses a racial consciousness
        
        Whites have combined Asianness with whiteness to paint an anti-Black narrative: "whites upheld Asians as 'near-whites' or 'whiter than whites' in the model minority stereotype" (Okihiro 62)
        
        Gary Y. Okihiro, “Is Yellow Black or White?" from Margins and Mainstreams: Asians in American History and Culture
      - Subject(s): "model," "minority"
    - - “Advocacy,” “access,” “legitimacy,” “empowerment,” “assertiveness” formed the basis for a new Asian American society
        
        The emergence of young professionals as community leaders has aided mass political mobilizations but also a diversification of political viewpoints, including neoconservatism
        
        Glenn Omatsu, “The ‘Four Prisons’ and the Movements of Liberation: Asian American Activism from the 1960s to the 1990s”
      - Nassau Hall Sit-In
        
        Resulted in promises by the university to begin work to create an Asian American Studies program (made in 2018) and a Latino Studies program (made in 2009), but little was done in establishing the program
        
        Students formed an organization to protest the lack of Asian American studies at Princeton
        
        1993 report demanded improved admissions procedures, a definition in rules on racial harassment and bias, an Asian American Studies program, increasing women and Asian Americans for faculty positions, increased support to the Third World Center
        
        Source : “Princeton Asian American Studies Task Force 1993 Report”
      - Source: A timeline of Princeton Asian American Alumni Association
        
        Focus shifted from admissions/formation of studies program to broader outreach/professional development
      - Subject 1: Asian American
        Subject 2: Self-empowerment, Neoconservative
    - - Sociologists at UChicago, notably Robert E. Park, led a brand of ethnic studies which conceived of ethnicities or culture as the way to preserve white supremacy by assimilating problem minorities into the dominant majority (Okihiro)
      - Gary Okihiro, Introduction and Chapter 1 of Third World Studies
      - Unifying minorites and whites was seen was a function of maintaining existing relations of power
      - The son-in-law of Vicha Ratanapakdee evoked past tensions between Asians and African Americans, suggesting that it was the result of one race targeting another. This is where the uniformity of racial violence becomes dangerous.
        
        Jaeah Lee, “Why Was Vicha Ratanapakdee Killed?,” The New York Times Magazine, August 18, 2021
      - Subject 1: white supremacy
        Subject 2: assimilating minorities
    - - Brown v. Board (1954) was only possible because racial integration eventually converged with white interests:
        racial segregation became viewed as an economic threat to the industrialization of the South and a setback to America’s reputation during the Cold War
      - Julie J. Park and Amy Liu, “Interest Convergence or Divergence?: A Critical Race Analysis of Asian Americans, Meritocracy, and Critical Mass in the Affirmative Action Debate”
      - Asians in the affirmative action debate were combined with white interests
      - in hindsight the Brown decision further marginalized the interests of poor and working-class Blacks and whites, hence representing an ultimate divergence of interests
      - In 2016, President Obama nominated Florence Pan for a vacancy on the U.S. District Court for D.C. but she was never confirmed. When Trump took office, he nominated a white woman, Dabney Freidrich, to fill her seat. After Biden renominated Pan this March, she was finally confirmed last Thursday, becoming the first Asian American woman on a D.C. federal court. She replaced a more progressive Black woman, Ketanji Brown Jackson, who was promoted to the D.C. Circuit. The language surrounding Pan’s nomination, back in 2016, and again in 2021, focuses both on her credentials and her addition of diversity to the federal bench. An opinion from the Post in 2016 advocates for her confirmation because she is an “experienced, moderate nominee” with a “distinguished, impressive record.” Senator Dick Durbin of Illinois lauds her nomination has helping build a bench “that reflects full diversity.” These two elements, merit and a seeming contribution to diversity, fuel a lot of the debate surrounding affirmative action. Julie Park and Amy Liu challenge the notions of meritocracy in this debate, pointing to the fluidity of what constitutes “merit.” Is merit tailored to meet ostensible standards of “diversity,” or is it a facade obscuring performative practices to advance institutional interests? Reading the news about Florence Pan was an interesting peek into the way that government bodies are circulated by nomination, replacement, demotion, and promotion. Is there such thing as a “full diversity” as Senator Durbin calls it? How do political or legal leanings affect the appeal of Asian actors in this system? If Pan was progressive instead of moderate, how much would her contribution to diversity really count?
      - Subject 1: White interests, pro-affirmative action groups
        Subject 2: pro-affirmative action Asian advocates
    - - Ozawa’s lawyers argued that Congress’ original intent was to exclude Africans and American Indians—Ozawa was willing to argue that the Japanese were superior in culture and thus deserving of citizenship (thus attempting to unite the Japanese and white body)—but the court refused to budge
        
        Takao Ozawa v. US (1922)
      - Thind noted that the Aryans of India are a “tall, long-headed race with distinct European features, and their color on the average is not as dark as the Portuguese or Spanish," and because marrying outside of caste is strictly forbidden in India, Thind argued that he was a “pure Aryan" (thus attempting to unite the Hindu and white body)
        
        Bhagat Singh Thind v. US (1923)
      - Subject 1: Asian immigrant desiring citizenship
        Subject 2: white body
    - - Produced a strong identity of resistance that both coexisted with and supported, yet in many ways overshadowed, specifically Native Hawaiian issues and losses
      - Subject(s): immigrants in Hawai'i, "Americanness," liberal ideals of inclusion
    - - AG Jeff Sessions during Trump’s presidency: “I really am amazed… that a judge sitting on an island in the Pacific can issue an order that stops the president of the United States."
      - Brian Russell Roberts, “Archipelagic Thinking and the Borderwaters”
      - In the Hawaiian language, Pae ´āina and pae moku, are translated to archipelago and they “conceive of mutliple lands as interconnected” and “imply active human and state intervention in the creation of an archipelago” (Roberts 16)
      - Subject(s): U.S. continental states
    - - Warwick Anderson, “Excremental Colonialism,” from Colonial Pathologies: American Tropical Medicine, Race, and Hygiene in the Philippines
      - The Filipino body has been combined with the visuals and substances of animals in the marketplace, and human waste in toilet, conflating Filipinos with execrement and creating a "living laboratory" (Anderson 113)
      - Object(s): Filipino body, execrement and human waste
        Subject(s): White/American body, mouth/discourse
  - - - As the state legally transformed the Asian alien into the Asian American citizen, it formalized the disavowal of the history of racialized labor exploitation and disenfranchisement through the promise of political freedom. This was a pretense for forming one uniform white society where Asians "belonged" in this white sphere. (Lowe)
      - Object 1: Asian alien
        Object 2: Asian citizen
        (combined by the state)
    - - the 1875 Page Act, which effectively prohibited the immigration of Chinese women to the U.S., led to American Chinatowns becoming overwhelmingly male “bachelor” societies, and the Chinese American population was artificially truncated over many decades. This led to the concentration of Chinese men in “feminized” forms of work, such as laundry, restaurants, and other service sector jobs
        
        “Chinese male immigrants could be said to occupy, before 1940, a ‘feminized’ position in relation to white male citizens, and after 1940, a ‘masculinity’ whose racialization is the material trace of the history of this ‘gendering’” (Lowe 11)
      - Object 1: Chinese male immigrants
        Object 2: feminized forms of work, non-masculinity
    - - Lisa Lowe, “Immigration, Citizenship, Racialization: Asian American Critique,” from Immigrant Acts
      - The collectively forged images, histories, and narratives that combine individuals in relation to the national polity have contributed to a national culture that continues to be the medium through which the subject becomes, acts, and speaks as "American"
      - Object 1: white individuals, white objects
        Object 2: forged images, histories, and narratives deemed "American"
    - - A direct outgrowth of the Black power movement, the yellow power movement advocated self-acceptance as the first step toward strengthening personalities of Asian Americans, attempting to form one society of politically empowered, non-passive Asians
      - “Yellow Power,” Giant Robot (Spring 1998)
        
        Object 1: Black Power
        Object 2: Yellow Power
        
        Yellow Power and Black Panthers grouped together on this cover
      - Amy Uyematsu, “The Emergence of Yellow Power in America” (1989)
    - - Dean Saranillo, Unsustainable Empire: Alternative Histories of Hawai’i Statehood
      - The U.S. attempted to combine Hawai'i into the states through a process that Saranillo describes as "manufacturing consent": where the U.S. government made sure that the process of U.S. statehood wasn’t disrupted by free democratic debate
      - Object 1: Hawai'i
        Object 2: United States
        (combined by U.S. government)
    - - Source: Hawaiian Sovereignty Leader Haunani-Kay Trask Criticizes Asian ‘Settler’ Privilege and Collaboration with Colonialism (2000)
      - "The history of our colonization becomes a twice-told tale, first of discovery and settlement by European and American businessmen and missionaries, then of the plantation Japanese, Chinese, and eventually Filipino rise to dominance in the islands."
      - The conflation of the term "local" with "immigrant" glossed over the term "settler," obscuring Asian collaboration with colonialism in Hawai'i
      - Object 1: "locals" in Hawai'i
        Object 2: Asian "immigrant" in Hawai'i
        (combined by the Asian settler)
    - - Edna Bonacich, and Lucie Cheng, “The Political Economy of Capitalist Restructuring and the New Asian Immigration”
      - The international organization of labor markets has led to industrial production becoming increasingly shifted to developing countries, with the developed countries focusing more on providing business services to global enterprises
      - To move up technological ladder, many Asian developing countries promoting higher education, some sent to developed countries like US for advanced training; others have trained at home
      - Object 1: International organization of labor markets
        Object 2: Asian developing countries
- - - - Glenn Omatsu, “The ‘Four Prisons’ and the Movements of Liberation: Asian American Activism from the 1960s to the 1990s”
    - - In response to real estate corporations planning to demolish the I-Hotel in San Francisco's Manilatown, housing activists, students, community members, and tenants united to protest and resist eviction
        
        Curtis Choy, The Fall of the I-Hotel (1983)
      - In response to anti-Asian hate crimes and a global pandemic, the Asian American Feminist Collective published "Asian American Feminist Antibodies: Care in the Time of Coronavirus," forming written activism for community care around gender-based violence, aid for sex workers, and protection against hate crimes
    - - “Third World Liberation Front: Notice of Demands” (1968) Gidra, Vol.3, no. 1
        
        Expressed unanimous voting support for the position of the Black Students Union
        
        Solidarity in demanding a school of ethnic studies, new faculty positions for that school and for Black Studies program, all applications of non-white students be accepted in the fall of 1969, and faculty chosen by non-white people as their teachers be retained in their positions
  - - - Minh-ha's Surname Viet Given Name Nam does this by forcing the audience to confront their own perceptions of Vietnamese women
  - - - Is it possible to distinguish the two? What does this mean for the importance of collectivity?
  - - - In Patrick Lee's "Unspoken," queer and trans Asian Americans read letters to their immigrant parents about their gender identity, sexuality, and queerness
      - In Chicago, the Queer South Asian Community has formed families like Trikone surrounding shared experiences of both alienation and liberation
        
        Source:“Exploring the Roots of Chicago’s Queer South Asian Community ” (NBC 2018) <https://www.nbcnews.com/video/exploring-the-roots-of-chicago-s-queer- south-asian-community-1263642179572>