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While the Exchange Visitor’s Program was originally a point of interest…

- - - - when a minority group's interest align with the white agenda
      - when a minority group's interests do not coincide with what benefits the white American
      - Interest Divergence
  - - - The model minority label is a result of a point of interest convergence with Asian Americans and white Americans. White Americans use the "model minority's" educational achievements as their poster child as to why Affirmative Action is wrong and should be disbanded in exchange for a more meritocratic system.
        
        In this scheme, Asians are associated with whites and pitted against African Americans.
        
        Is Yellow Black or White?
        
        Gary Okihiro
        
        Yellow is not Black or White
        
        yellow seems to fall on some arbitrary line between the two
        
        Very intertwined and similar histories between Asians and Blacks
        
        colonization, slavey, oppression, denial to rights and opportunities
        
        Present day kinship between Asians and Blacks has been obscured because of a fight for access and resources
    - - The alliance formed between white and Asian Americans would quickly dissolve in a more meritocratic structure, where Asians would displace whites in admissions to selective universities. An interest divergence would form, and therefore the incentive to support Asian Americans would be lost.
        
        In this scheme, Asians are dissociated with whites and associated with "inferior" minorities
    - - Two contrasting models: the Asian American body has shifted from alien and yellow peril to citizen and model minority
      - Race is a flexible structure, and the racialization and gendering of bodies responds to the conditions of different historical moments.
      - The term "model minority" displaces Asian Americans out of assimilation. By this label, they are defined to have to act a certain way to "assimilate" to the US's expectation of Asian Americans. What happens if they do not fit into that categorization?
      - Asians are at an awkward balancing point in relation to the US. As the "yellow peril," they are threat to displacing white Americans and European immigrants. But, at the same time, Asians are still necessary for racialized labor.
  - - - Yellow Power
        
        Emergence of Yellow Power in America
        
        In the past (and present) has been an uneasy alliance with whites "to keep the blacks down."
        
        Asian Americans need to be "yellow conscious" and not deny their yellowness in an attempt to assimilate to whiteness.
        
        The Yellow Power movement is a coalition of yellow people seeking liberation of racial oppression for those people.
        
        Giant Robot
        
        Yellow power was inspired by black power, especially by the Black Panther Party
        
        Many Asian Americans also fought alongside African Americans in the Black Panther Party's rallies to liberate the oppressed.
      - Princeton University
        
        Asian American Student Task Force 1993 Report:
        Preliminary Proposals and Recommendations
        
        Record keeping and an open admissions process
        
        diversity records should be based on ethnicity, not race as a whole
        
        A required undergraduate course in multiculturalism and diversity
        
        Increased funding to the Third World Center (now the Carl A. Fields Center)
        
        Princeton Asian American Studies Report (2013)
        
        Propose that Princeton:
        
        Create a formal Asian American Studies certificate program
        
        Support professors with research interests related to Asian American Studies
        
        Seek out faculty in Asian American Studies
        
        Asian American studies is becoming an increasingly popular topic, and Princeton (in 2013) was the only Ivy and Ivy+ university that did not have a program.
        
        Timeline of the Princeton Asian American Alumni Association tracks the key milestones and turning points for the support and inclusion of Asian American students at Princeton, such as the protest for an Asian American studies and ethnic studies program through the 1995 Nassau Hall Sit-In.
    - - Okihiro's Third World Studies
        
        about society and the human condition broadly
        
        about the US and its place in the world
        
        not about righting past wrongs or multiculturalism or identity politics
        
        illuminates that whiteness is the assumed default and examines how racial constructs form around it
      - Term emerged during the Cold War Period, where the first world represented capitalist, democratic, and developed nations where the third world encapsulated underdeveloped and undemocratic nations. The Third World nations then formed a solidarity to resist the First World hegemony.
      - Third World Liberation Front
        
        Third World Liberation Front Notice of Demands calling for colleges to restructure their admissions and faculty policies to increase the number of minority students and teachers at the schools
      - 1968 as a Turning Point for Asian American Liberation
        
        Omatsu's Four Prisons
        
        Four prisons: geography, history, social/class structure, the self
        
        Redefined racial and ethnic identity and challenged prevailing notions of power
        
        Rise of a new model minority and Asian American Neo-conservative construct
        
        Asians became a symbol of wealth, but also greed and lack of community concern
        
        Asian American Neo-conservatives were some of the main opponents to Affirmative Action, forgetting how it still benefits Asian Americans
        
        The Fall of the I-Hotel
        
        Hotel that was the center of an Asian American community - housed many of the Filipino elderly
        
        Corporations wanted to tear down the building to build a public parking structure as they saw the building as a waste of space.
        
        Big Yellow Power movement that arose in protest of the destruction of the I-Hotel and the violence and disrespect against Asian Americans
        
        Asian Americans were no longer conforming to the voiceless, passive stereotype
- - - - Hawaii
        
        Unsustainable Empire
        
        Native Hawaiians have mixed feelings on US statehood. Many see the statehood as fraudulent because Hawaii was wrongfully annexed and technically stolen.
        
        Settler colonialism: a form of colonialism that differs from the typical European occupation. US settler colonialism depended on settlers replacing natives and displacing them in land and other corporations.
        
        Hawaii was originally not eligible for statehood in the minds of Congress because of the large Asiatic population. However, this mindset shifted during the Cold War when Hawaii's diverse population would look good for the US. The US was also afraid that if they did not annex Hawaii during this time, Britain or Japan would.
        
        Haunani-Kay Trask's Criticism
        
        Asian "settlers" are in cooperation with US colonialism.
        
        Asian settlers are overrunning natives and calling themselves "local," and in this way, are denying the indigenous history natives have.
        
        In response, Hawaiians are beginning to abandon the identity "American" and reclaim the identity "Native."
        
        Pacific Islanders are Not Asian Americans
        
        Which of These Things is Not Like the Other
        
        Considering "Asian Americans" and "Pacific Islanders" as equivalent is detrimental to the true understanding of Pacific Islanders, who need their own critical mass.
        
        On the mainland, Asians are treated as second class citizens, but in Hawaii, they hold key roles of power. Asians are viewed by some to be the facilitators of native oppression.
        
        Asian Americans in Hawaii are calling themselves "locals," and this term is beginning to become interchangeable with the label "Hawaiian." Asians are displacing Hawaiian natives.
        
        Pacific-ing Asian Pacific American History
        
        If the US is the producer, then the Pacific Islands are the mode of transportation for the product, Asia.
        
        The Pacific Islands are what connects the "old World" Eurasia to the "New World" Americas.
        
        The use of maps shows that the history of Asia's interactions with America must also involve Asia's interactions with the Pacific Islands and America. Their histories are related, but they do not have the same relation to the US.
        
        The connections for all the main ports between the East and the West pass through the Pacific Islands
        
        Hawaii is a Paradise, But Whose?
        
        Hawaii has been used as a place to exploit income from tourism.
        
        With the COVID-19 pandemic, Hawaiian natives realized how much they despised tourism because of the disrespect and fetishization of the land and people.
        
        "People are tired of being decorative Hawaiians as well as people who live in Hawaii"
      - Pacific Islands
        
        Archipelagic Thinking and Borderwaters
        
        Borderwaters works to undercut continent exceptionalism and does not endorse past or current US land or water claims. However, it does not intend to pit the ocean/islands against the continent.
        
        If an archipelago is over a group of islands, then its nation is not limited to just the small masses of land and rather, includes the water surrounding the islands.
        
        Our Sea of Islands
        
        Shifts the perspective of the Pacific Islands from "islands in a far sea" to "a sea of islands"
        
        the first emphasizes smallness and remoteness
        
        the second is a more holistic perspective that empowers the islands
        
        Frees the islands from being a helpless nation subject to US power
    - - Mixed Messages at the St. Louis World's Fair
        
        Filipino tribes were brought in as "exotic" exhibitions.
        
        Filipino American soldiers, Christianized Filipinos, and Filipino exchange students were in another exhibit to represent the "civilized" Filipinos.
        
        The main purposes of the Philippines exhibit were to advertise that the war in the Philippines was over and to illustrate the dramatic change the Filipino could undergo through the US's assimilation/civilization process.
      - Excremental Colonialism
        
        A social hierarchy in the Philippines based on fecal practices
        
        Filipinos: diseased, dirty, dangerous, savage
        
        Americans: clean, hygienic, pure
        
        Filipino practices were seen as disease-filled, so American colonizers felt the need to convert them to the standard American sanitary practices.
        
        If Filipinos could confess their "rottenness," they could be granted "probationary sanitary citizenship."
    - - Hmong soldiering was a way to "civilize" and save those who had no nationalist sentiment by giving them a purpose. The US in turn expected subjection and sacrifice of the Hmong to the US.
      - Hmong refugees in the US were seen as bodies with no home or autonomy, so "Hmong soldiering" reinforced feelings of US rescue and liberation.
      - Hmong soldiers were used to fight in the "secret war" over Laos during the Cold War. Soldiering raised the Hmong status from primitive to modern, but they were still seen as expendable subjects who could die for the nation as the were not truly "American."
  - - - How the West views the East?
        
        often comes with fetishizing stereotypes of the East
      - The Occident's way of coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient's special place in European Western history
      - Three Definitions:
        
        Academic label: any study of the Orient
        
        Style of thought based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between the Orient and the Occident
        
        How the Occident can have corporate authority over the Orient
- - - - Similar to the dynamics of the EVP, Filipino American nurses still fill the most exploitable positions in the medical field. Filipina nurses only make up 4% of the nursing population, but during the COVID-19 pandemic, make up about 30% of the nurse death count because there are a disproportionate amount of Filipina nurses working on the front lines.
      - Vox
    - - Chinese and Asian Indian "coolies" brought into the US to work on railroads and agriculture
    - - The Price of Nice Nails
        
        Asians are expected to do better work in the socially reproductive field. There exists a racial hierarchy on the supposedly best workers: first Korean, then Chinese, other Asians, and Hispanics and non-Asians at the bottom.
        
        Socially reproductive work is not valued in America. Manicurists are overworked, barely paid for their unpleasant, labor-intensive jobs.
      - The Farm
        
        Filipino women as baby nurses and surrogates
        
        Association between Asian, especially women, and caretaker type work: "Lis theorized Jane's behavior is ingrained because the Philippines were colonized for so long that Filipinos are raised to serve" (Ramos 84)
      - The Cost of Caring
        
        Emma, a mother of nine children in the Philippines, felt forced to immigrate to New York to do the lower-class work of a nanny to financially support her family.
        
        Again, there is this association between Asians and socially reproductive work. Emma "found that in the eyes of many employers, Filipinas were at the top of the ethnic hierarchy for domestic workers, as if their nationality had become synonymous with family duty and deference" (Aviv 11)
  - - - With the 1965 Immigration Act, a large wave of Asian immigrants came to the US. There was a trend that most of these immigrants were professionals from educate, middle class backgrounds.
      - Before the 1960s, developed countries like the US outsourced their labor to exploitable third world countries. However, the resulting industrialization of these countries led to the rise of New Industrializing Countries (NICs).
      - Asian NICs saw exponential growth because of the US's financial aid in fighting against their communist counterparts and because of the Confucian values of thriftiness and work ethic.
      - To find cheaper labor, the US had to restructure its economic chain by outsourcing its labor to even more underdeveloped countries. NICs also outsourced labor to these countries. Roles shifted for the NICs from laborer to producer and the US from producer to manager of production.
- - - - 1875 Page Law
        
        Limited the growth of Asian communities and population through families in the US
        
        Banned prostitution to deter Asian women from coming to the US
        
        Specifically targeted the Chinese and Japanese
      - 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act
        
        Prohibited new Chinese laborers from entering the country for ten years
        
        Chinese laborers already in the country were allowed to stay
        
        Prohibited the Chinese from becoming naturalized citizens
        
        Successfully limited immigration and prevented the development of larger Asian American communities in US
      - 1913 California Alien Land Law
        
        Prevented all "aliens ineligible for citizenship" from owning land
        
        Could only lease land for not more than three years
        
        Could not sell or give preowned land to another immigrant
      - Perpetual Foreigner
        
        #STOPASIANHATE
        
        During the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an uprise of violence against Asian Americans because they are blamed to have brought the "Chinese Virus" to the states. Many of these Asians Americans who have faced discrimination had not been to Asia recently if at all, and many were not even Chinese. The illogicality of these hate crimes and the push for Asian Americans to "go back to their country" revives feelings that Asians have and will never truly be considered American.
        
        The poster held by protesters demanding justice for the racist murder of 84-year-old Thai Buddhist Vicha Ratnapakdee
        
        Care in the Time of Coronavirus: A Zine
        
        Historically, Asians, especially Chinese have been seen as a source of disease and they have been target of blame for many outbreaks like COVID-19:
        
        1876 Smallpox epidemic of San Francisco is blamed on the Chinese in the city
        
        1939-1941 widespread tuberculosis in the US is blamed on living conditions in Chinatowns
        
        The massage parlor in the Atlanta shooting in 2021 (Vanity Fair)
        
        Attacks on Asian Americans not only were driven by racism, but crimes such as the shooting at the Asian massage parlor in Atlanta also had origins of sexism that were derived from the hyper-sexualization of Asian women.
        
        Exotic Fetishization:
        How does this prevent Asian Americans from being seen/accepted as belonging to America ?
        
        The film Slaying the Dragon works its way through the first movies Asian American actors appeared in American movies. There is an apparent pattern of these Asian American actors playing roles of prostitutes and slaves where the enticement to the white audience was their exotic sexuality and willingness to serve the main white male figure.
        
        Looking through the lens of Cheng's Ornamentalism, the Asian female body becomes detached from her flesh, and she renders a passive object that can adorned in any fashion the white gaze wants to dress her in. The objectivity and hyper-sexuality projected onto the Asian female body then makes it difficult to separate her from being an object of desire for just white men.
        
        Why Suzie Wong is Not a Lesbian
        
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        Tracing the Muslim Body through Ornamentalism
        
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        Mechanical Eye, Electronic Ear, and the Lure of Authenticity
        
        What is authentic? It depends on who is the cameraman and the audience and what they consider to be true?
        
        How does one authentically capture the Asian and Asian American story/portrayal? Is it possible to be done by a white cameraman?
        
        How does the camera play a role in the narrative?
        
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        Cultural Appropriation
        
        Poets published their continuously rejected poems under Asian names, which gave their poems a new exoticness and attractiveness.
        
        Some poets like pseudonym Araki Yasusada assumed the complete identity and backstory of a Japanese man. His poems were about his supposed history and took racial fraud to another level, and yet, many took his poems to be authentic. Does this reflect America's limited understanding of Japan and/or its obsession with the Orient?
        
        Just because a poem is racist does not mean it is not a work of art and should not be ignored altogether. However, the prejudice innately in the poem must also be addressed as to not propel the racist messages.
      - 1917 Immigration Act
        
        Created the Asiatic Barred Zone, which included East and South East Asia and West Asia (Middle East)
        
        Extended the Chinese Exclusion Act to all Asians except Filipinos and Guamanians (US Nationals)
      - 1934 Tydings-McDuffie Act
        
        US federal law that would grant the Philippines independence in ten years
        
        Filipinos were no longer considered US nationals, so the US could finally exclude all Asians from the US
      - 1907 Gentlemen's Agreement
        
        Agreement between the US and Japan that the US would not impose official immigration restrictions and would protect Japanese already in the US in exchange for Japan restricting further emigration to the US
      - The Immigration Act of 1924
        
        Restricted immigration to the US to 150,000 based on quotas for each country, but basically no Asians could come to the country already because of the Chinese Exclusion Act and 1917 Immigration Act
        
        Excluded all persons ineligible for citizenship from the US
        
        Separated Europe from non-European World
        
        Fifty-three white "Countries of Origin"
        
        Five "colored races: black, mulatto, Chinese, Japanese, Indian
      - 1920 California Alien Land Law
        
        designed to cut loopholes from the previous Land Law and drive Japanese farmers out of California
        
        Prevented aliens from purchasing and leasing land
        
        Japanese Immigrant Response to Land Law:
        
        only option for farmers with expiring leases was to become cropping contracts - reduced from farmers back to laborers - and these cropping contracts were declared illegal in 1921
        
        A few Japanese took their lease to court unsuccessfully.
        
        Middleman loophole: could get a citizen to lease the land for a Japanese farmer and hire the farmer as a manager in exchange for a fee (which was often raised with blackmail)
        
        Oral Agreement: two separate agreements, one public and one private. Publicly, the landowner would higher the Japanese farmer as a foreman. Based on unwritten, mutual agreement, the Japanese cultivated the land as a share tenant
        
        Land Companies: land companies leased the land out in pieces to Japanese farmers where they paid a portion of their earnings in return
    - - Takao Ozawa vs US (1922)
        
        Ozawa, who would have been a model Japanese citizen (educated and English-speaking) tried to apply for citizenship in 1914, but he was turned down because at the time naturalization was only eligible for caucasians and Africans.
        
        Ozawa tried to argue that Japanese were superior in culture to Africans and American Indians to no avail.
        
        Many Japanese and other Asians were also had light colored skin, which made a "color test" not an option.
        
        Approximation to Whiteness:
        both Ozawa and Thind tried to claim whiteness to gain the rights that come with that privilege
      - Bhagat Singh Thind v. US (1923)
        
        Thind, born in Punjab, India, was part of the high-cast Hindus or "Aryans" and therefore was considered caucasian.
        
        When he tried to apply for citizenship, however, he was acknowledged to be caucasian but was still denied citizenship because he did not fit the "common" definition of a "white person"
      - Who Killed Vincent Chin
        
        Vincent Chin was a Chinese American citizen beaten to death with a baseball bat by white Americans Ronald Evens and stepson Michael Nitz.
        
        There were clearly signs of racial motivations behind the murder as Evans was witnessed to have blamed Chin for Japan's automotive success (thinking that Chin was Japanese) and called Chin racial slurs for Asians taking Americans' jobs, which started a fight.
        
        Evans and Nitz denied that the murder had racial motivations and were only charged with a fee, but no jail time. This ruling infuriated Asian Americans because it demonstrated how little the US valued the rights of Asian Americans as it seemed like white Americans could still get away with anything against these still-considered-to-be "aliens."
    - - 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act
        
        The US set a 20,000 immigrant quota from each nation in the Eastern Hemisphere but did not expect the great influx of immigrants that came with it.
        
        Favored family reunification and then members of professions that could benefit the economy
        
        Pivotal moment: Asian exclusion laws finally were turned over
      - Alien Ineligible to Citizenship vs Citizen
        The US has a long history of Asian Exclusion. Asians were only brought into the country for specific purposes before they were completely excluded all together. However, with the 1965 Immigration Act, President Kennedy successfully repealed the exclusion fo the Asia-Pacific triangle. This turning point was partly initiated by WWII as Japan exploited Asian exclusion propaganda of the US discriminating against is own ally, China.
        
        Japan and the US
        
        How to Tell Japs from the Chinese
        
        Descriptions are mapped out onto the faces of a Chinese (left) man and Japanese (right) man
        
        US citizens needed to be able to distinguish between an "enemy alien" Japanese man and an innocent Chinese person
        
        America's Concentration Camps
        
        During WWII, Japanese Americans were feared to be enemy spies.
        
        Hawaii was a main concern for international security because of its large Japanese American population, and they lead the way for the ideas of removal and confinement of Japanese Americans.
        
        After the Pearl Harbor attack, fear surrounding Japanese Americans was revamped, and they became objects of treachery, disloyalty, and white suspicion.
        
        General DeWitt recommended a mass evacuation of all Japanese Americans, to protect the West Coast. Japanese American citizens were not "American enough" to require protection.
        
        Transpacific Cold War Formations
        
        Wars involving Japan often involve the US. For America, WWII conventionally begins with the bombing of Pearl Harbor and ends with the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
        
        Starting in the early 90s, there have been renewed calls for historical justice for Japan's warcrimes during WWII.
        
        Reparations for Japanese war crimes has been technically, but insufficienly, resolved through the San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951. Ultimately, the violence from both nations has been rendered invisible, and therefore the acts are unredressable.
        
        Post-19990s redress culture underscores the inability of a sovereign political body to fully represent its own subjects. Therefore the rights to reparations neither originate nor are protected by the State.