emotional & cognitive socialization outcomes
values
attitudes
normality > an example of societal perceptions -- it is based on societal norms at a given time as well as who is deviating from those norms
values are the basis for attitudes: an attitude is a tendency to act positively or negatively to certain persons, objects, or situations; composed of beliefs, feelings, and behavior tendencies
development of attitudes
influences
family -- parents have a large impact on children's attitudes & values> rigid parental attitudes foster similar attitudes in their children; modeling - children identify with models who are powerful & admirable; instruction > young children accept as true the statements of their parents & others they admire; reinforcement & punishment > attitudes towards cultural groups can be influenced by associating them with positive words or negative words
peers -- children compare the acceptability of their beliefs with those of their friends; children compare their characteristics with those of the in group & the out group
mass media -- television cited as a source of information that influences attitudes about people & things; books influential in attitude formation
community -- community customs & traditions influence attitudes > age, gender, or race discrimination
school-- influence attitude formation > gender-typed expectations that are reinforce traditional gender-role behaviors, influence attitudes towards others (culturally diverse students)
motives & attributions
achievement motivation (mastery orientation)
locus of control
learned-helplessness orientation
self-efficacy
learned helplessness orientation -- the perception acquired through negative experiences, that effort has no effect on outcomes
internal locus of control > perception that one is responsible for one's own fate; external locus of control > perception that others or outside forces are responsible for one's fate
often correlated with actual achievement behavior; the motivation to achieve may manifest itself only in behavior the child values e.g. athletics but not schoolwork
motive -- a need or emotion that causes a person to act; attribution -- an explanation of one's performance
self-esteem
development of self-esteem
factors contributing to development of self-esteem: significance > the way one perceives they are loved & cared about by significant others (respectful, accepting, & concerned treatment); competence > the way one performs tasks one considers important; virtue > how well one attains moral & ethical standards; power > the extent to which one has control or influence over one's life & that of others
the value on places on one's identity, derived from the reflected appraisal of others
spiritual connections
qualities or beliefs that are viewed as desirable or important; can include such related characteristics as attitudes or morals that affect our behavior.
affected by personal perceptions such as age, experience, cognitive development, and moral reasoning, reflecting the perspectives of different generations
values clarification -- the process of discovering what is personally worthwhile or desirable in life; process can help individuals understand their own moral codes, their attitudes & motives, their prosocial or antisocial behavior, their gender roles, & themselves
prejudice > an attitude, usually comes from categorizing or stereotyping > an oversimplified, fixed attitude or set of beliefs that is held about members of a group -- stereotypical attitudes usually do not allow for individual exemptions
influenced by age, cognitive development, social experiences > Phase I - awareness of cultural differences (ages 2 1/2 to 3); Phase II - orientation to specific culturally related words, concepts (age 4); Phase III - attitudes towards various cultural groups (age7)
changing attitudes about diversity
prejudicial attitudes can be changed by enabling children to have positive experiences (both real & vicarious) with cultural minorities; when an adult mediates the experience by pointing out individual differences, it is especially effective
achievement motivation -- refers to the learned motivation to achieve mastery of challenging tasks; mastery motivation -- the inborn motive to explore, understand, & control one's environment
achievement motivation types -- intrinsic > within person >doing an activity for inherent satisfaction or enjoyment ; extrinsic > socially mediated > doing an activity to attain some separable outcome, to get a reward or avoid punishment
attributions > linked to locus of control -- one's attribution of performance, or perception of responsibility for success or failure; may be internal or external; learned helplessness > a phenomenon exhibited by people who no longer perform effectively in a number of situations > they have learned to be helpless rather than competent
one's expectation of success related to: 1) one's history of success or failure; 2) one's perception of how difficult the task is; 3) the attributions for one's performance
individuals are motivated to control the outcomes of their efforts. This motivation is exhibited in the need to achieve or be competent, called achievement motivation or mastery orientation
factors influencing control beliefs -- the perceived relationship between their actions & their successes or failures; age> as children get older, their understanding of causality & explanations for outcomes becomes more differentiated
children with an internal locus of control generally do better academically & are more competent & effective than those with an external locus of control
internal locus of control is related to age (increase in perceptions of internal control); gender, (grade school girls are more internal than boys); SES ( middle and upper-class children are more internal than lower-class children); and achievement.
when children believe their failures are due to uncontrollable factors in themselves, such as lack of ability, their subsequent task performance deteriorates after failure; if children are enabled to believe their was due to lack of effort, they tend to try harder on subsequent tasks & often show improved performance
girls are more likely than boys to demonstrate learned helplessness from attributing lack of ability to themselves likely due to differential feedback to girls and boys; if parents and teachers praise children's abilities when they succeed and emphasize lack of effort when they fail, the children are more likely to persist at challenging tasks
the belief that one can master a situation & produce positive outcomes; a performance-based measure of perceived capability; related to empowerment > enabling individuals to have control over other resources affecting them, and achievement motivation, internal locus of control, history of & attributions of success/failure, & learned helplessness
self-efficacy differs from the other related concepts in that it not only can explain present performance but can also predict future performance
most significant influences on self-efficacy beliefs is experience (successfully performing tasks, solving problems, making things happen), followed by vicarious experience ( observing others execute competent behaviors), verbal instruction, encouragement, & feedback on performance; negative influences include fatigue, stress, anxiety,
dimensions of self-esteem include; scholastic competence, athletic competence, social competence, physical appearance, & behavioral conduct; diverse cultures differ on the emphasis of these dimensions; positive self-concept > used to describe self-esteem
family influences -- parental approval is particularly critical in determining self-esteem of children; parents characterized as warm (affectionate & accepting), strict (but noncoercive), democratic (children allowed to participate in planning, express opinions) > authoritative parenting style
school influences -- children with high self-esteem likely to be successful in school & achieve more than children with low self-esteem
peer influences -- physical appearance highly correlated with self-esteem; body types > endomorphy (short, heavy build), mesomorphy (medium, muscular build), ectomorphy (tall, lean build); status of peer group
mass media influences -- advertising strategies > ideal physical stereotypes; social media profiling;
community influences -- business community > women don't advance as quickly, women's capabilities still stereotyped
not enough evidence to support a correlation between boosting a child's self-esteem and school work/job performance
people are most likely to be happy when they are challenged and have "flow"
factors predictive of happiness include: being married, being religiously devout, having & associating with friends
one of the biggest predictors of happiness is close relationships
people with lots of money or people who win lottery's are not happier. Money can't buy happiness.