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ch. 1-12, Ch.3, ch 4, ch.7, ch.8, ch.9, ch.10, ch.12, Ch.2, ch.11 - Coggle…
ch. 1-12
Ch.1
Biology the study of life
7 properties of life:
order, reproduction, growth and development, response to environment, energy processing, evolutionary adaption, regulation
Three Domians
Bacteria, archaea, eukarya
emergent properties
Biosphere, ecosystem, community, populaltion, organism, organs and organ system, tissue, cells, organelle, molecule and atoms
chemical reactions
the process of science
Scientific method
evidence-based processes of inquiry
observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment, observation, data analysis
scientific theory
broad in scope and supported by a large body of evidence
five unifying themes in biology
evolution
the process of change that has transformed life on earth
natural selection
Darwins theory of evolution
observation: heritable variations, overproduction of offsprings
inference: unequal reproduction success leads to evolutionary addaptions in the population
Ch.3
organic compunds
carbon and hydrogen
hydrocarbon
isomers
same molecular formula, differnet structure
properties depend on size and shape of carbon backbone
the six functional groups
hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, methyl
monomers
polomers
hydrolisis and dehydration reaction
lipids
hydrophobic(hate water)
non polar molecules
fats (triglyerides) consist of glycerol linked to three fatty acid tails
three important types: fats, phospholipids and steroids
unsaturated fats turn into saturated fats by adding hydrogen
Long term energy storage
nucleic acids
monomer: nucleotides polymer: polynucleotide
deoxyribose and ribose sugars
4 types nitrogenous bases
RNA: U,C,A,G
DNA: T,C,A,G
sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base
carbohydrates
monosaccharide "simple sugars"
contains hydroxyl and carbonyl group
two monosaccharides are disaccharides
starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin
most end in -ose and -ase
proteins
monomer: amino acids polymer: protein/ polypeptide
denaturation unravels protein
connected through a peptide bond
ch 4
the cell:intro
microscopes
light microscope
transmission electron microscope
electron microscope
scanning electron microscope
cell structure and function
Ch.5
how enzymes function
catalyzes cellular reactions
an enzymes substrate fits in a specific activation site
speed up chemical reactions
energy and the cell
chemical reactions either release or store energy
ATP drives cells work
cells transform energy and matter to preform work
membrane structure and function
passive transport
no energy needed
active transport
energy needed
cell membrane
made of phospholipids
endomembrane system
smooth ER
synthesizes lipids and process toxins
rough ER
produces membranes, ribosomes and secrets proteins
golgi apparatus
modifies, sorts and ships cell products
energy-converting organelles
mitochondria
endosymbiont theory
chloroplasts
stroma
thylakoids
ch.6
cellular respiration
photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy
breathing supplies O2 for cellular respiration
cells capture energy from electrons "falling from organic fuels
fermentation
glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of all cells
enables cells to produce ATP without without oxygen
metabolic pathways
cells use cellular respiration and ATP for biosynthesis
cytoskeleton and cell surfaces
motor proteins
ch.7
into to photosynthesis
photosynthesis fuels the biosphere
some plants, algae, and bacteria are photoautotrophs
they produce food by all heterotrophic organisms
occurs in the chloroplasts
these structures are surrounded by double membranes which contain
stacks of thylakoids and fluid called stroma
traces by using isotopes
experiments using heavy and radioactive isotopes
a redox process
H20 is oxidized and CO2 is reduced
occurs in two stages
light reactions occur in the thylakoids
NADPH is produced from the calvin cycle in the stroma
Light reactions
photosytems capture solar energy
each system consists of light havesting and reaction center complexes
primary electron receptor is chlorophyll a
visible radiation thats absorbed drives light reactions
certain wavelengths are absorbed by chlorophyll
carotenoids function in photo protection
two connected electron chains convert light to chemical energy
photosytem 1 ans 2 provide energy to make ATP
ATP is than reduced to NADP+ and than too NADPH
takes place within the thylakoid membranes
concentration gradient drives H+ back through ATP synthase powering the sythesis of ATP.
global significance
raising CO2 levels can affect plant life
long term field projects allow scientists to access the effects of CO2 on natural eco systems
reducing fossil fuels can moderate climate change
green house effect
calvin cycle
NADPH and ATP power sugar cycle
carbon fixation, reduction, release of G3P and regeneration of RuBP
evolution of carbon fixation
C3 and CAM plants
ch.8
meiosis and crossing over
chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs
gametes have a single set of chromosomes
meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid
both mitosis and meiosis begin with diploid parent cells
independent orientation in meiosis and fertilization leads to various offspring
crossing over increases genetic variability
eukaryotic cell cycle and mitosis
chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division
includes growth and division phases
cytokenisis differs for plant and animal cells
cell division is the continuum of dynamic changes
the rate of cell division is affected by enviormental changes
alterations of chromosomes
accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome numbers
an extra copy of chromosome 21 can lead to down syndrom
abnormal amount of sex chromosomes does not normally affect survival
karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individual chromosome
new species can araise from errors in cell division
can also cause birth defects
cell division and reproduction
cell division plays important roles in the lives of organisms
prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission
ch.9
variation of mendels laws
incomplete dominance results in intermediate phenotypes
many genes have more than two alleles that may be co-dominant
a single gene may affect many phenotypic characters
a single character may be influenced by many genes
enviorment influences many genes
basis of inheritance
chromosome behavior accounts for mendels laws
crossover produces new combinations of alleles
genes on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together
geneticists use crossover data to map genes
sex chromosomes and sex-linked genes
chromosomes determine sex in many species
sex linked genes exhibit a unique pattern of inheritance
human sex linked disorders affect mostly males
y chromosomes provides clues about human male evolution
mendel's law
law of segregation describes the inheritance of a single character
laws reflect the rules of probability
the law of independent assortment is revealed by tracking two characters at once
genetic traits can be tracked through family pedigrees
many inherited traits in humans are controlled by a single gene
new technology can give insight to genetics
ch.10
structure of genetic material
DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides
experiments show that DNA is genetic material
DNA is a double-stranded helix
chromosome structure and chemical modification can affect gene expression
flow of genetic information
genes control phenotypic traits through expression
genetic coding dictates how codons are translated into amino acids
transcription produces genetic messages in the form of RNA
Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters during translation
eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus
ribosomes build polypeptides
genetics of viruses and bacteria
viral dna may become part of the host chromosome
bacterial plasmids can serve as carriers for gene transfer
prions are infectious proteins
DNA replication
dependent on specific base pairings
DNA repiclation proceeds in two directions at many sights at the same time
ch.12
gene cloning and editing
genes can be cloned in recombinant plasmids
enzymes are used to "cut and paste" DNA
reverse transcriptase can help make genes for cloning
nucleic acid probes can label specific DNA segmants
new techniques such as crispr allow a specific gene to be edited
genetically modified organisms
recombinant cells and organisms can mass produce gene products
gene therapy may someday be used to treat a variety of diseases
dna technology has changed the pharmaceutical industry and medicine
genetically modified organisms are transforming agriculture
DNA profiling
the analysis of genetic markers can produce a DNA profile
has been used for evidence in may forensic investigations
the PCR method is used to amplify DNA sequences
gel electrophoresis sorts DNA molecules by size
short tandem repeat analysis is used for DNA profiling
genomics and bioinformatics
genomics is the scientific study if the whole genomes
genomes hold clues to human evolution
most of the human genome does not consist of genes
Ch.2
water: lifes supporting properties
property 1: cohesion
moderates temp changes
property 3: ice floats
property 4: versatile solvant
PH Scale
elements, atoms, and compounds
compounds
2+ elements, fixed ratio
elements
92 natural, 25 for human life, 96% weight of human beings
trace elements
needed to prevent disease
common additive to food and water
atoms
smallest unit of matter with element properties
atomic number
atomic mass
atomic symbol
subatomic particles
neutrons, electrons, protons
chemical bonds
electron shell
valance electrons
covalent and ionic bonds
covalent; electrons are shared equally
ionic: electrons are shared
reactants and products
ch.11
cloning of plants and animals
plant cloning shows that differential cells may retain all their genetic potential
cloning through nuclear transplantation
therapeutic cloning can produce stem cells
Genetic basis of cancer
mutation in genes that control cell division
multiple genetic changes underlie the development of cancer
faulty proteins can interfere with normal signal transduction pathways
lifestyle choices can reduce the risk of some cancers
control of gene expression
proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or of in response to change
complex assembles of proteins control eukaryotic transcription
eukaryotic RNA can be spliced in more than one way
non coding RNA
multiple mechanisms regulate gene expression