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Plant And Animal Responses - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Taxes are (rapid) movements either towards (positive, +ve) or away from (negative, -ve) an external stimulus.
      - The direction of the stimulus determines the direction of movement.
      - Types Of Taxes
        
        Chemotaxis
        
        Geotaxis
        
        Thermotaxis
        
        Phototaxis
        
        Hydrotaxis
      - To orientate towards or away from the stimulus, the organism either determines the direction of the stimulus by moving a single sense organ and comparing relative intensities (klinotaxis), or the organism determines the direction of the stimulus by comparing using two or more sense organs or either side of its body and comparing the intensity of the stimulus (tropotaxis).
    - - Kineses are non-directional movements in response to a stimulus, with the intensity of the stimulus determining the rate of movement (the direction of the movement in random, bearing no relation to the direction of the stimulus).
      - Orthokinesis, in which the intensity of the stimulus determines the speed or rate of movement - the rate is faster in unfavourable conditions and slower in favourable conditions
      - Klinokinesis, in which the intensity of the stimulus determines the rate of turning when moving - the rate is faster in unfavourable conditions and slower in favourable conditions.
      - Photokinesis is a response to changes in light intensity, with the rate of movement determined by the light intensity.
        
        Higher light intensity = higher temperature = higher chance of dehydration
    - - Homing is a response in which an animal regularly returns to a nest site or a breeding nest/colony.
      - To do this successfully, the animal must be able to navigate and requires an internal clock,.
    - - Migration is a response in which members of a species move from one geographic location to another isolated geographic location.
      - Typically, migration is an annual event in which animals migrate between breeding and feeding grounds. This may be between two different parts of a country or between two different parts of the world.
      - For some species, return migration occurs at different stages of their life cycle and not annually.
      - Migration requires the ability to navigate, as well as the presence of an internal clock.
        
        Navigation may involve several different methods.
        
        Landmarks - the animal recognises familiar landmarks and uses these to guide it to its destination. This is more common when the animal is close to home.
        
        Solar navigation (sun compass) - the sun moves across the sky from east to west during the day and any animals are able to use this to navigate. As the sun is so far away, if the animal is able to keep a set angle to the sun when moving, it will move in a straight line.
        
        Since the sun moves across the sky during the day, a long-distance migrant must compensate for the sun's movement. Therefore an internal clock is essential to keep track of time and allow the animal to change its orientation to the sun and therefore keep on course to its destination.
        
        Stellar navigation (star patterns) - animals can use star patterns such as the constellations when moving at night. An internal clock is also required, to compensate for movement of the stars.
        
        Magnetic fields - many animals are known to use Earth's magnetic fields to successfully navigate.
        
        Chemical trails - animals may use scent trails to find their way to a destination
        
        Sonar (sound reflection) - the ability to navigate using echolocation, emitting sound waves that bounce off objects.
        
        Typically, a combination of methods may be used by an animal to successfully find its destination.
      - Migration is innate (adults do not teach their young where to go or how to get there). However, migratory experience over the years can improve success rate.
      - Animals need to prepare for migration
        
        Laying down of fat layers to ensure energy supplies for the journey.
        
        Μoulting of feathers and replacement with new ones (especially flight feather) to ensure maximum flight efficiency. The new feathers may include breeding plumage for the spring migration.
      - Migration involves risks to individuals.
        
        Insufficient fat deposits to make the lengthy journey
        
        Feathers in poor condition so the journey cannot be completed
        
        Predation during the journey (predators will congregate at sites that the birds will fly over during migration periods)
        
        Birds too weak/ not healthy enough to complete the journey
        
        Storms blow the birds off course / kill them
      - Migration provides distinct benefits
        
        Avoiding extremes of winter climate at each location (with reduced / no available food)
        
        Plentiful hours for feeding at each location
        
        Promoting survival / breeding success
        
        Breeding in areas with longer photoperiod
        
        Young grow rapidly and are strong
        
        Abundant food supplies reduce infraspecific competition, increasing survival
        
        Abundant food
      - For long-distance migration to have evolved and continue to exist, the advantages/benefits must outweigh the disadvantages/costs. Migration offers greater reproductive success compared with non-migration.
      - Migration cues
        
        Change in photoperiod. The reason that the cue is change in photoperiod is that this is consistent from place to place and throughout the year.
        
        Other cues that might be used are variable and do not produce a consistent trend, therefore migration may occur at not the most opportune time of the year.
      - Weak individuals that do not complete the migration have their alleles removed from the gene pool; only strong/best-adapted individuals get to compete the route and successfully breed.
  - - - Daily
        
        Earth rotates on its axis ever 24 hours
      - Lunar
      - Tidal
        
        The gravitational pull of the moon orbiting Earth results in tides (with approximately 12 hours between successive high tides and low tides).
      - Annual
        
        Resulting in regular seasonal cycles with changes in photoperiod and temperature
        
        The tilted Earth orbits the sun every 365.25 days
    - - All activity patterns/rhythms are innate and are controlled by an internal clock. The clock is set by an environmental cue known as a zeitgeber. The clock is synchronised by cues to determine the time of onset (and offset) of activity.
        
        The internal clock is under genetic control, with several genes identified in a range of organisms.
        
        In humans, daylight is detected by the eyes and the message transmitted to the SCN in the hypothalamus of the brain, which is the site of the clock. This may then stimulate or inhibit the production of the hormone melatonin by the pineal gland (daylight inhibits production of melatonin, promoting wakefulness). In humans, the free-running period of the internal clock is about 24.5 hours, and therefore it constantly needs to be reset to entrain to the 24-hour day using the light/dark cycle as a zeitgeber.
      - When the organism's activity is set to a particular zeitgeber, the the activity is said to be entrained.
        
        Needs to be continuously entrained
        
        When constant conditions cease through the introduction of a zeitgeber, the organism's activity starts to phase-shift - the start of the activity moves each day until it concides with the onset of the zeitgeber.
        
        The adaptive advantage of having activity controlled by environmental cues entraining an internal clock is that it allows an organism to anticipate or predict the onset of favourable conditions, therefore gaining maximum advantage of these.
      - Activity rhythms under the control of an internal clock are known as endogenous and these rhythms display a characteristic period.
        
        In the absence of environmental factors (ie, when conditions are constant) the clock still runs and the organism still displays rhythmic activity. The period of the activity in constant conditions is known as the free-running period.
        
        Circadian
        
        Circannual
        
        Circatidal
        
        Circalunar
        
        Circasemilunar
        
        If the start of the activity is getting later each day, the free-running period is slightly greater than 24 hours.
        
        If the start of the activity is getting earlier each day, the free-running period is slightly less than 24 hours
        
        A few activity patterns are determined by external factors only and are known as exogenous rhythms (photosynthesis)
      - Synchronisation may occur between species
    - - Reduced the risk of predation, as there are fewer night-active predators.
  - - - Exploitation
        
        Herbivory
        
        Herbivory is a relationship in which on individual (the herbivore) feeds on plant material. The herbivore benefits (+), which the plant is harmed (-).
        
        Herbivores are not predators.
        
        Herbivores display specific adaptations to their lifestyle, while plant often display adaptations to reduce/deter herbivory such as thorns/spines and toxic chemicals.
        
        Predation
        
        Predation is a relationship in which one individual (the predator) hunts, kills and consumes and individual of another species (the prey). The predator benefits (+), while the prey is harmed (-).
        
        Predators display specific adaptations for hunting/killing, while the prey displays counteradaption to reduce the risk of predation (such reciprocal adaptations are an example of co-evolution.
        
        Camouflage
        
        Cryptic colouration
        
        Warning colouration occurs in a variety of animals and indicates to predators that they are unpalatable, harmful, toxic, or venomous
        
        Eye positioning
        
        Speed/strength/stamina
        
        Poison
        
        Teamwork
        
        Parasitism
        
        Parasitism is a relationship in which one individual (the parasite) feeds off another living individual (the host). The parasite benefits (+), while the host is harmed (-).
        
        Parasitism is a very common and successful lifestyle and parasites exist in most animal groups (parasitism is rare in plants).
        
        Types Of Parasites
        
        Ectoparasites are free-living and feed on the host from the outside, typically piercing the skin and feeding by sucking the host's blood.
        
        Endoparasites typically have a complex life cycle involving two different hosts (carnivore and herbivore). This allows for distribution of the species / reduction in infraspecific competition / reduced chances of over infestation of the host (which may kill it - parasitoidism)
        
        Endoparasites live inside the host, typically in the blood system feeding on blood or in the digestive tract feeding on digested food.
        
        Parasites display specific adaptations for their lifestyle.
        
        Social (or brood) parasitism is known to occur when individuals of a species use the services of another species to raise their young.
        
        Benefits young when they hatch by providing them with a warm protective environment surrounded by food, therefore increasing their survival chances.
        
        Exploitation is a relationship between members of two species in which one benefits (+) while the other is harmed (-).
      - Mutualism
        
        Mutualism is a relationship between members of two species in which both benefit (+ and +), therefore the survival chances of the individuals in the relationship increase (compared with the survival chances of organisms if they are not in the relationship).
      - Commensalism
      - Ammensalism
      - Interspecific Competition
        
        Interspecific Competition occurs when resources become limited. Members of both competing species are harmed (- and -), with reduced survival chances and reduced reproductive success.
        
        The more similar the resource requirements of the two species are (ie, the greater the niche overlap), the more intense the competition is.
        
        The more limited the resource(s) are, the more intense the competition is.
        
        May also act to limit the extent of another species' niche, and if the niche requirements are two similar, then one species may outcompete and eliminate the other (Gause's Principle).
    - - Territoriality
        
        A territory is a defined area containing a nest site set up by a group defending against all others of their own species
        
        The size and location of a territory are determined by the area that the owner(s) can successfully defend, as well as the strength and/or status of the owners(s).
        
        Males unable to secure a territory typically do not secure a mate and breed. Therefore, their alleles do not enter the gene pool. Territories therefore act as population controls and enhance the gene pool, as only the strongest individuals get to breed and contribute their successful alleles to the gene pool.
        
        Provides a comparatively safe place for mating, nesting and rearing offspring
        
        Increases the chances of successfully reproducing, rearing young and surviving.
        
        Territory costs
        
        Energy demanding for monitoring and defending the boundaries
        
        Potential physical risks/injuries resulting from boundary disputes
        
        A home range surrounds a territory. It is shared with other groups of the same species and is where they forage for food. The home range is not defended.
        
        The boundaries are defined and may be marked.
        
        Vocalisations and/or visual displays may be used to advertise the location of a territory, warn off others of the species and/or attract a mate.
      - Hierarchical behaviours
        
        Hierarchies occur when individuals have a specific rank (or status) within a group.
        
        Ranking determines an individual's access to resources such as food, water and mates, therefore acts to reduce intraspecific competition, as well as aggression.
        
        Ranking is determined by any, or a combination, of:
        
        Sex
        
        Age
        
        Experience
        
        Size
        
        Strength
        
        Rankings are typically determined by trials of strength. They may change over time.
        
        Only high-ranked individuals get to breed. Therefore only the alleles of the stronger individuals enter the gene pool / occur at higher frequency in the gene pool.
      - Co-operative interactions
        
        Groups are typically organised to a degree and are co-operative in that the individuals assist one another in various ways.
        
        Breeding
        
        Rearing of young
        
        Defence against predators
        
        Access to food
        
        Forming and maintaining a group depends on behavioural adaptations of the individuals. These behaviours have been selected for, as they enhance survival and reproductive success.
        
        The advantages of group living must outweigh the disadvantages if the group is to continue.
        
        Advantages
        
        Better defence against predators; young put on inside of herds.
        
        Greater ability to find food, especially as a result of co-operative hunting
        
        Mates readily available, increasing breeding success
        
        Assistance with rearing young.
        
        Greater learning opportunities
        
        Population control by controlled access to mates/food
        
        Protection from physical environment
        
        Greater ability to spot predators, as more eyes/ears are on lookout.
        
        Disadvantages
        
        Increased intraspecfic competition, especially as group gets larger - this can result in poor health / reduced reproductive success / increased mortality.
        
        Increased risk of the spread of disease resulting from close contact with others in the group.
        
        Controlled access to mates, so some individuals do not get to breed (especially males).
        
        Allogrooming benefits the group as it establishes/reinforces social bonds and reduces the risk of aggression.
      - Reproductive behaviours
        
        k strategy
        
        Courtship behaviour
        
        Pair bond
        
        Work together in maintaining territory.
        
        Reduces energy demands of each individual.
        
        Increases the chances of working together successfully to mate and rear offspring.
        
        A pair bond forms between the male and female as a result of courtship behaviour.
        
        Courtship behaviour ensures that mating occurs between individuals of the same species and so maintains the isolation of the gene pool.
        
        Courtship behaviours tend to be a series of repeated, ritualised activities and responses, typically initiated by the male.
        
        Courtship also allows for sexual selection of males by females. The males display their size/strength/health/beauty and the female selects the 'best' - ie, the male that has the 'best genes', increasing the chances of her offspring having similar favourable traits.
        
        In some species, a lek system exists in which males congregate in an area and display to watching females.
        
        Typically only a few males will get to breed with the females, so contributing their favourable alleles to the gene pool.
        
        Few offspring are produced with a large investment of time and energy in raising the offspring.
        
        This strategy creates a higher risk to the parents, but is offset by a higher success rate.
        
        Parental care refers to the behaviour associated with caring for and raising for young.
        
        The advantage of providing parental care is that the survival chances of the offspring until they are independent are improved.
        
        The disadvantages of parental care is the costs to the parents - energy demands are high when feeding and protecting the young. In addition, the parents are at increased risk of harm/death when they protect the young from potential predation and/or weather events.
        
        Solo parenting
        
        Offspring is left on its own for a period of time, so there is a greater risk of death through heat loss, and they are more vulnerable to predation.
        
        r strategy
        
        Large numbers of eggs are produced with little investment of time and energy in raising the offspring.
        
        This strategy provides little risk to the parents, but has a low success rate.
        
        Several different mating systems occur.
        
        Monogamy
        
        Both parents can share the duties of raising/feeding/protecting the young, which reduces the demands (eg, energy) on each parent and increases the chances of successfully raising the young until they are independent.
        
        The main disadvantage is that the male does not have access to a range of potential partners, and therefore in unable to contribute his alleles in higher frequency to the gene pool.
        
        Polygyny
        
        Polyandry
        
        Polygynandry
        
        Co-operative breeders
        
        In which numerous male/female partnerings occur within the social group and most adult assist with raising the offspring.
        Adults do not typically raise the offspring.
        
        Synchronised spawning
        
        In which males and females release gametes simultaneously, often in response to environmental cues, and fertilisation is external.
      - Intraspecific competition
        
        Occurs when resources become limited. As individuals of the same species have the same resource requirements, infraspecific competition is typically more severe than interspecific competition.
        
        Competition for resources may provoke aggression between individuals - this is commonly seen in competition between males for mates during the breeding season.
        
        Agonistic behaviour
        
        Agonistic behaviour in groups results in the reduction of aggression.
        
        This is seen in distinct postures/gestures/vocalisations that threaten another animal. These behaviours are understood and the threatened animal typically backs off / backs down or displays submissive behaviours, with the result that serious aggressive encounters are rare.
        
        Agonistic behaviours tend to be ritualised, with dominant and submissive behaviours recognised and acted on by other members of the group.
- - - - Tropisms are growth movements either towards (positive, +ve) or away from (negative, -ve) an external stimulus.
      - The direction of the stimulus determines the direction of growth.
      - Types of Tropisms
        
        Phototropism (stimulus is light)
        
        Chemotropism (stimulus is a particular chemical such as toxins, acids)
        
        Geotropism/gravitropism (stimulus is gravity)
        
        Thigmotropism (stimulus is touch)
        
        Can give plants support. Saves energy and materials by not needing to produce large amounts of the fibrous cells/ tissues normally needed to support the stem. This energy can then be used for other life processes.
        
        Maximises higher light intensity to maximise photosynthesis and therefore increase growth.
        
        Being higher gives greater exposure to pollinators, increasing opportunities for successful pollination.
        
        Increased height about the ground also provides better dispersal opportunities for seeds.
        
        Hydrotropism (stimulus is water)
      - Experiments into the control of tropisms indicate that plant hormones such as auxin are responsible. Most investigations have revolved around phototropism and geotropism.
        
        Auxins (eg, IAA) are produced in the cells of growing tips of stems and roots.
        
        The diffuse down from the tip and promote elongation of cells (hence the stem grows in length).
        
        If auxin concentrations are unequal on either side of the stem, cells will elongate more on one side of the stem than on the other. This results in stem bending.
        
        Increasing the concentration of auxin up to a certain level increases cell elongation in stems; above this level elongation is inhibited.
        
        In roots, high concentrations of auxin inhibit cell elongation. Auxin concentrates on the lower side of the root, due to gravity, inhibiting cell elongation on this side. This results in the root bending downwards and therefore into the soil, ie, positive geotropism.
    - - Nastic movements are rapidly reversible movements of part of a plant in response to changes in the intensity of a stimulus (not its direction).
      - Types Of Nastic Movements
        
        Thigmonasty (stimulus is touch)
        
        Evolved as a response to reduce herbivory.
        
        Thermonasty (stimulus is temperature)
      - Investigations indicate that rapid movement/collapse of parts of the plant may be the result of changes in turgor pressure in the cells at the base of the stem of the leaf.
        
        Cells lose water in osmosis and therefore lose rigidity
        
        Revert to the horizontal to gain full exposure to light, allowing maximum photosynthesis
  - - - Short-day plants - need a period of long nights (a photoperiod of less than a certain critical day length, CDL) before they can flower. Therefore these plants lower in autumn, winter or early spring.
      - Long-day plants - need a period of short nights (a photoperiod of greater than a CDL) before they can flower. Therefore these plants flower in late spring into summer.
        
        Coincides with activity of animal pollinators and the long, warm days provide extended hours for pollinator activity - therefore chances of pollination are maximised.
        
        The long photoperiod and warm temperatures increase photosynthesis and therefore promote growth of buds and flowers, therefore increasing flowering success.
      - Day-neutral plants - flower independently of the length of the photoperiod. Therefore these plants flower all year / any time of the year (typical of plants that live in the tropics).
    - - If the day is long enough, P(far-red) accumulates and long-day plants flower.
      - If the night is long enough, P(red) accumulates and short-day plants flower.
  - - - Plants may exploit herbivores in order to get pollinated. Pollinators are attracted to the plant by colour/chemicals/shape to obtain nectar from the flower. In doing so, the herbivore accidentally collected pollen on its body, which is transferred to the next flower/plant - pollination occurs.
    - - In this response, cells in the roots secrete a chemical (an allelochemical) into the soil that inhibits the growth of surrounding plants.
      - Reduces interspecific competition from these plants for resources.
      - The plant that releases the chemicals benefits (+), while the inhibited plants are harmed (-).
      - An example of antibiosis.