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Geography, Construction of the New Street Station (£750 million) began in…
Geography
Natural Hazards
Weather hazards
Typhoon Haiyan
Location
South East from the philippenes
Just north from the equator
Effects
Primary Effects
600,000 displaced - 40,000 homes were damaged and 90% of Tacloban was destroyed.
City airport badly damaged
30,000 fishing boats damaged - businesses destroyed.
Damaged power lines and crops.
6300 people dead - most died from the storm surge.
Secondary effects
No food, shelter, water or communication
6 million people lost their source of income.
Expectant mothers shocked into birth.
Looting and violence
No electricity - pylons fell down.
Full hospitals
14 million people affected
Responses
Long term responses
Oxfam helped rebuild businesses by providing and repairing fishing boats.
Cash for work - gives people money for help with aid
Rebuilding infrastructure and Tacloban
Thousands of homes built away from areas of flooding
More evacuation shelters built
Rice and farming industries rebuilt
Immediate responses
Helicopters were used to reach cut-off communities.
Tents - temporary hospitals and 1200 evacuation shelters
Aid workers
For the first 10 days, the RAF sent 200 tonnes of medicine and food
Somerset Floods
Causes
Rivers had not been dredged in 20 years and so had built up in sediment.
Wettest January ever recorded with 350mm of rainfall 1.2m high. There was also a succession of low pressure.
High tides and storm surges swept water up the rivers from the Bristol channel;. This prevented fresh water from reaching the sea and it spilled over the river banks.
Extensive area of low lying farm land.
Effects
Environmental
Floodwaters were heavily contaminated with chemicals, sewage and oil.
Stagnant water had to be reoxygenated
Huge amount of debris that had to be cleared
Social
600 houses flooded and 16 farms evacuated
Residents moved to temporary accommodation for many months
Villages (Moorland, Muchelney) were cut off
Power cut off
Economic
14000ha of farmland under water for 3-4 weeks.
Cost of £10m
1000 livestock evacuated
Railway closed and local roads were cut off
Responses
Community groups gave support
Boats had to be used for transport
8km of the rivers Tone and Parratt dredged.
Road levels were raised to enable communication and allowed businesses to continue operating.
vulnerable communities were given flood defences
River banks were raised and strengthened
By 2024, there will be a tidal barrage at Bridgewater
More pumping stations will be built
Tropical storm formation
1) Strong upward movement of air draws water vapour up from the warm ocean surface.
2) The evaporated air cools as it rises. It condenses to form thunderstorm clouds.
When the air condenses it releases heat. This helps power the storm and draw more water from the ocean.
4) More smaller storms join together to form a giant spinning storm. It must be 120km wide for it to officially be a tropical storm.
5) The storm now develops an eye, where air descends rapidly. The eyewall is where the most intense conditions are.
6) As the storm is carried across the ocean, it continues to gather strength.
1 more item...
Global Atmospheric Circulation model
Air that is sinking to the Earth creates areas of high pressure. An example is the polar cell. Winds on the ground move outwards at these areas.
Air that is rising causes areas of low pressure. An example of this is the equator. Winds on the ground move towards these areas of low pressure.
Winds on the ground are distorted by the Earth's rotation. They curve as they move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
Factors that increase the risk
Urbanisation - large cities that live on fault lines
Climate change - more intense storms
Farming - encourages more settlements on floodplains.
Poverty - forces people to live in areas of risk
Earthquakes
Types of plates
Constructive Margin
Two plates are moving apart. Magma forces its way to the surface. As it breaks through the crust it causes earthquakes. If it reaches the surface, volcanoes form.
Destructive margin
If both of the plates are continental crust, the land becomes crumpled and uplifted to form fold mountains such as the Himalayas.
If one of the plates is oceanic, the oceanic plate subducts beneath the continental plate as it is more dense. As the plate is forced further into the mantle, it begins to melt. This magma is then pushed upwards to cause eruptions.
Two tectonic plates are moving apart.
Conservative margin
Two tectonic plates brush past each other. The friction causes a rise of energy and tension. When this tension is released, powerful earthquakes occur.
Chile case study
Effects
Primary Effects
800,000 people affected
500 killed
12000 people injured
220,000 homes destroyed
4500 schools
53 ports
56 hospitals
Talcahuanao port and Santiago airport badly damaged
Total cost of USD$30bn
Lost power, communications, water and supplies
Secondary Effects
Landslides - 1500km of road damaged and some remote communities were cut off
Coastal towns devastated by tsunami waves
Fire at Santiago chemical plant
Responses
Immediate Responses
USD$60m raised
30,000 shelters built
Power and water returned to most houses by 30 days
Emergency services acted quickly
Temporary repairs to important roads used in transporting aid
Long term responses
It took 4 years to recover from the infrastructure damage
House reconstruction plan - 200,000 homes planned to be rebuilt
Copper export economy rebuilt without needing much international aid
Key Facts
8.8 on the richter scale
Just off the coast of central chile
Occurred on the 27th October 2010
Nepal case study
Key facts
7.9 on richter scale
80km north-west of Kathmandu (capital city)
Damage to urban areas.
Effects
Primary Effects
9000 people dead and 20,000 injured
8 million people affected
3 million left homeless
50% of shops and businesses were destroyed
1.4 million needed food
7000 schools destroyed
International airport congested with aid
Secondary Effects
Landslides and avalanches - deaths on Mt. Everest
250 people missing in Langtang region
Landslide blocked Kali Gandaki river. High risk of flooding.
No tsunami as the earthquake was inland away from any water
Responses
Long term responses
Roads repaired and landslides repaired
7000 schools repaired and rebuilt
Thousands rehomed.
Stricter control on building codes to prevent worse situations in the future.
Tourism industry restarted and boosted
Hosted an international conference to receive technical and financial aid
Immediate responses
Helicopters used to recover those stuck due to the avalanches
Search and rescue teams
Water and medical supplies quickly arrived from China, UK and US SWAT.
500,000 tents
Field hospitals set up to help those injured in the earthquake
300,000 migrated from Kathmandu
Financial aid pledged
Used social media to help with aid
Protection
Rolling weights - these are placed on the top of the building and provide stability as they stop the building from rocking as vigorously.
Shutters on windows - these protect the windows from getting shattered in high speed storms.
Reinforced lift shafts and tension cables - these prevent lifts from falling and creating additional damage.
Open meeting area - provides a safe area.
Helicopter pad - allows a helicopter to land on the roof of the building in case of an emergency.
Lattice steel cage - provides stability.
Lattice steel foundations into bedrock.
Rubber shock absorbers
Why do people live in areas of risk?
Volcanoes bring some advantages:
Fertile soil
Rich minerals
Building materials/rocks
They may not be aware of the risk.
Poverty may mean that the person cannot move.
The person may acknowledge the fact that natural hazards are rare events.
Plate boundaries often coincide with favourable areas for settlement.
Better building design can withstand hazards
Effective monitoring allows people to evacuate.
Economic World (Nigeria)
Trans-national corporations
Advantages
Provide employment and the development of new skills
More money is spent in the economy
Investment in local infrastructure and education
Other companies benefit from increased orders
Valuable export revenues are earned
Disadvantages
Local workers are often poorly paid
Working conditions are sometimes very poor
Management jobs are often given to foreign employees
Grants and subsidies could have been used to invest in Nigerian industry
Much of the profit generated goes abroad
Shell oil in the Niger delta
Advantages
91% of contracts have gone to Nigerian companies
providing direct employment for 65,000 Nigerian workers and a further 250,000 jobs in related industries
supporting the growth of Nigeria's energy sector
making major contributions in taxes and export revenue
Disadvantages
Militant groups disrupt oil supply in the delta
Frequent oil flares send toxic fumes into the air
Oil theft and sabotage are big problems in the region which reduces production levels and costs TNCs and the government billions of dollars every year
Oil spills have caused water pollution and soil degradation, reducing agricultural production and fishing yields
Nigeria Internationally
Agriculture
40% employed in this sector
Australia (30%) and Indonesia (15%) are Nigeria's biggest customers for cotton.
Part of CEN-SAD and ECOWAS (African trading groups)
Significant trading partners - Ghana and Ivory Coast
Cocoa and rubber exports are low - most going to Barbados for processing
Crude oil
Dominates Nigeria's exports - sweet oil - less than 42% of sulphur
Biggest customer used to be 2013 US but development of shale oil there
India is Nigeria's new largest customer for oil
2013-2014 increase in 40% in exports to India, China, Japan, South Korea
Political links
CEN-SAD develops sporting links
United Nations - 5th largest number of troops to the UN peacekeeping force
OPEC - stabilises the price of oil and tries to make sure there's a stable supply
African Union - economic planning and peacekeeping group.
ECOWAS - west african trading group
Trading relationships
main exports of crude and refined petroleum, rubber, natural gas, cocoa and cotton
main imports are refined petroleum from the EU and USA, cars from Brazil and the US, telephones, rice and wheat
Fastest growing imports is telephones imported from China - demand from Nigeria's growing population
Growing economy
Why is Nigeria's economy growing?
Rapid advances in technology
Investment in science and technology training - huge population is seen as an asset to the country.
Greater concern for the environment
Many people speak English - potential in telecommunications
Information technology is beginning to drive the economy rather than oil
Increased use of telecommunications - Nigeria is able to benefit from global finance and trade
Growing manufacturing sector
In the past, this was hindered by Nigeria's need to export raw materials
Today accounts for approx 10% of GDP
Growing faster than telecommunications, oil,gas and agriculture sectors.
Goods produced - processed foods, leather items, soaps and detergents, textiles
How is this impacting development?
People have a more secure income from regular, paid work. Provides a larger home market - electrical appliances, cars and clothes.
Oil by-products. Chemicals used in industry for soaps, detergents.
Thriving industrial sector attracts foreign investment
As it grows, more people are employed and more revenue from taxes is generated
Aid
Types of aid given
NGO Nets for Life provides education on malaria prevention. Distributes mosquito nets to houses.
UK Department for international Development has funded a health and HIV programme, providing health information in rural areas.
Aid from USA for education on the prevention of HIV/AIDS
2014 - world bank approved US$500 million development programme. Also gives loans to small businesses. Aims to reduce the dependance on oil money
USAID-funded Community Care gives support packages for vulnerable children and orphans
Why does Nigeria need aid?
100 million people or 60% of the population live on less than a dollar a day
Many people still do not have access to clean water, sanitation and an electricity supply.
Birth rates and infant mortality rates are high with a low life expectancy, especially in the north east
What prevents aid from being used effectively?
Corruption in the government
Donors may have political influence on what happens to aid
Money may be used to promote the commercial self-interest of the donor
The government may divert money away for other purposes - claims that aid money has been spent on the navy
Urban Environments and Challenges
Birmingham
Challenges for Birmingham
Urban deprivation
Spiral of decline
Urban sprawl
Huge range of demands for land use at the rural-urban fringe including: development of transport networks; edge of town retail parks; modern industrial estates.
The rural-urban fringe is at risk of urban sprawl as it is less expensive and a prime area for development.
Transport Provision
On every working day, the people of Birmingham make 250,000 car journeys that are less than a mile in length. The council are promoting walking and cycling.
Traffic in Birmingham has been a problem since the 90s due to a growing population.
The spaghetti junction is infamous - a huge road network that connects many roads in different directions.
Birmingham has an extensive road network which includes many motorways around the city
Inequality
10.9% of people in Ladywood claim benefits - this is the highest in the city.
167,000 unemployed people in the west midlands. This is a rate of 6%, slightly above the national average of 5.6%
1 in 5 workers live on less than the national living wage of £8.25 per hour.
In 2016, 37% of children lived in poverty. In the inner city areas, 47% live in poverty.
Access to services
Budget cuts in Birmingham meant that 4 libraries closed in 2014, with 2 more in 2016. This may negatively impact the elderly or youth who benefit from the services they offer.
The Council is spending money to update and improve leisure facilities for residents.
Shortage of doctors in some areas. An increase of 29% is needed to cater for the current population.
As the population increases, more demand is put on key services such as healthcare and education
Housing availability
Some areas have significantly poorer quality housing than others - Sparkbrook and Sutton Four Oaks.
As the city grew, the fastest growing areas were in the terraced housing around the city centre. These houses had poor quality sanitation.
Opportunities for Birmingham
Transport
High-speed railway planned to run from London to Birmingham by 2026.
Urban Greening
Improve the air quality around the city centre.
The aims include: raise awareness about the importance of trees; raising money for more trees to be planted; encourage local residents to be involved.
Birmingham City Council and Birmingham Civic Society as well as other local businesses and voluntary organisations have been involved in planting more trees.
Recreation and leisure
Home to many entertainment and leisure venues
The 'Bull Ring' shopping centre, costing £530 million, is the largest city centre indoor shopping complex in Europe. As well as the three story centre with 140 shops and kiosks, there is also room for 3000 cars.
Europe's first out-of-city-centre entertainment and leisure complex 'Resorts World Birmingham'
Europe's largest leisure and entertainment complex 'Star City'
Ethnicity
Birmingham is the second most multicultural city in the UK with 30% of the population being an ethnic minority
The majority coming from Pakistan, Caribbean and India.
86% still consider themselves as British
Housing
In northern Lozells there are blocks of flats being re-converted back to large family homes.
Focus on building new developments as blocks of flats near to the city centre.
Terraced housing built close to the Central Business District to house workers from the factories.
Culture
Popular music destination with many different concert venues such as the National Indoor Arena, National Exhibition Centre, Symphony Hall and Birmingham Hippodrome.
There are 1,000 creative industries in Birmingham employing 17,000 people in software design, publishing, performing, music, photography, marketing and broadcasting.
The ethnic restaurant sector is important. The 'Balti triangle' is home to 50 different Balti and takeaway shops.
Rio De Janeiro
How has Rio grown? Where have the migrants come from?
More recent migrants from South Korea and China seeking new business opportunities.
Common language still attracts migrants from Portugal.
Rio's industry attracts skilled workers from the USA and UK.
From other countries in South America.
From other parts of Brazil such as the Amazon Basin.
Zones
What is present in the South Zone?
Overlooked by Rocinha, the largest favela in South America.
Wealthy area dominated by wealthy flats - it's the wealthiest district in South America.
Rio's main tourist hotels and beaches such as Copacabana and Ipanema
What is present in the Centro Zone?
Barra da Tijuca has changed from a lower-class area into a wealthy coastal suburb with luxury apartments, shopping malls, recreational and tourist facilities.
Industrial area of Campo Grande. Has low quality housing around the steelworks.
The main olympic stadiums and competitor village are located here.
What is present in the North Zone?
The location of the Tijuca National Park.
Main industrial and port area
An area of low quality housing and favelas
International airport and Maracana stadium are here
What is present in the West Zone?
Barra da Tijuca has changed from a lower-class area into a wealthy coastal suburb with luxury apartments, shopping malls, recreational and tourist facilities.
Industrial area of Campo Grande. Has low quality housing around the steelworks.
The main olympic stadiums and competitor village are located here.
Social challenges
Healthcare
Problems
In 2013 only 55% of the city had a local family health clinic. Services for pregnant women and the elderly were very poor, especially in the West Zone.
Solutions
Favela of Santa Marta. Steep hill means that people cannot receive important healthcare. Medical staff took a health kit into people's homes and were able to detect twenty different diseases and treat them.
Education
Problems
The level of school enrolment in Rio is low due to:
A shortage of schools
A lack of money and a need to work
Low pay for teachers
Low pay for teachers
Poor training for teachers
Solutions
Encouraging local people to help volunteer to help in school
Opening a private university in Rocinha favela
Making money available to pay for extra-curricular lessons in Rocinha favela
Giving school grants to poor families to help meet the cost of keeping their children in school
Water supply
Problems
Around 12% of Rio's population did not have access to running water. It is estimated that around 37% of water is lost through leaky pipes, fraud and illegal access. The situation has become worse in recent years.
Solutions
By 2014, over 95% of the population had a mains water supply.
Over 300km of new pipes were laid
Seven new treatment plants were built between 1998 and 2014.
Energy
Problems
The whole city suffers from frequent blackouts due to a shortage in electricity. The growing population and the demands of the forthcoming Olympic games make the problem worse.
Many people in the poorer parts of Rio get their electricity by illegally tapping into the mains supply which is risky and unsafe.
Solutions
building a new nuclear generator
developing the news Simplicio hydro-electric complex will increase Rio's supply of electricity by 30%. It took 6 years to build and cost over US$2bn.
60km of new power lines
Crime
Problems
Drug gangs control many favelas
Nighttime is not safe - high crime rate
Murder, kidnapping, carjacking and armed assault occur regularly.
Solutions
Investment in school and support from NGOs have attempted to improve education and give young people better opportunities.
Environmental problems
Air pollution
Problems
Estimated to have caused 5000 deaths per year
City often covered in brown smog
Heavy traffic and congestion on roads causes build up of exhaust fumes.
Mist from the Atlantic mixes with vehicle exhaust fumes and pollutants from factory chimneys.
Solutions
Expansion of the metro systems
New toll roads into the city centre to reduce congestion.
Making coast roads on way during rush hours.
Traffic congestion
High crime levels mean that many people prefer to travel by car
The number of cars in Rio has grown by over 40% in the last decade.
Steep mountains - roads can only be built on coastal lowland. Main transport routes become very congested. Tunnels cut through the mountains are needed to connect different areas of the city.
Water pollution
Problems
Guanabara bay is highly polluted causing a major threat to wildlife.
Commercial fishing has declined by 90% in the last 20 years.
It could also impact tourism if the pollution impacts Ipanema and Copacabana.
Sources
Many of the 55 rivers pouring into the bay are heavily polluted
Rivers are polluted by run off from open sewers in the favelas
Over 200 tonnes of raw sewage pours into the bay each day
Over 50 tonnes of industrial waste enters the bay each day
Oil spills occur from Petrobras oil refinery
Ships empty their fuel tanks as there are not sufficient facilities to dispose of the fuel properly
Solutions
5km of new sewage pipes have been installed around badly polluted areas.
Ships are fined for discharging fuel into the bay illegally
12 new sewage works since 2004 at the cost of $68m
Favelas
Challenges
Construction
Houses are poorly constructed as they were built illegally using basic materials.
Many favelas are built on steep slopes and so heavy rain can cause major landslides.
In 2010, 224 people were killed and 13,000 lost their homes when houses were swept away.
There is limited road access due to the steep slopes
Services
In the non-improved favelas, about 12% of homes don't have running water, 50% have no sewage connections and 30% do not have electricity.
Many homes illegally tap into the city's electricity supply.
Sewers are often open drains.
Drinking water is often illegally tapped into.
Taps are often located at the bottom of steep slopes and require several trips each day to fetch water.
Unemployment
Unemployment rates are as high as 20% in some favelas
Average incomes may be less than £75 a month
Much employment is in the informal sector and is poorly paid
Crime
There is a high murder rate of 20 per 1000 people in many favelas
Drug gangs dominate many favelas
Many inhabitants distrust the police due to corruption and violence
Health
Population densities of up to 37,000 per km^2
Infant mortality rates as high as 50 per 1000
Lack of waste disposal facilities which leads to a build up of rubbish on the street. Increased risk of disease.
Burning rubbish frequently sets fire to the wooden houses. The smoke is harmful to health.
Solutions
Many people are moving to new areas to solve overcrowding
Rehousing people from favelas to basic housing
Developing rural areas to encourage more people to stay in the countryside
Raising taxes on the rich to help pay for housing for the poor
Forced eviction from favelas to clear land for development
UK Landscapes
Coasts
Hard engineering
Examples
Sea wall
Concrete or rock barrier against the sea
Advantages
Effective at stopping the sea
Often has a walkway or promenade for people to walk along
Disadvantages
Can look obtrusive and unnatural
Very expensive and high maintenance costs
Costs £5000-£10000 per metre.
Groynes
Timber or rock structures built out to sea from the coast. They trap sediment being moved from longshore drift and enlarge the beach.
Advantages
Creates a wider beach which can be popular with tourists.
Not too expensive
Timber structures cost £150,000 each at every 200m.
Provide useful structures for those interested in fishing
Disadvantages
By interrupting longshore drift, beaches further along the coast are starved, often leading to increased rates of erosion elsewhere.
The problem is shifted instead of solved
Groynes look unnatural and rock groynes in particular can look unattractive.
Gabions
Wire cages filled with rocks to absorb the impact of the waves.
Advantages
Cheap to produce and flexible in the final design
Up to £50,000 per 100m
Can improve the drainage of the cliffs
Will eventually become vegetated and merge into the landscape
Disadvantages
For a while they look unattractive
Cages only last for 5-10 years before they rust
Rock armour
Advantages
Relatively cheap and easy to maintain
It costs £200,000 per 100m
Can provide interest to the coast
Often used for fishing
Piles of large boulders dumped at the foot of a cliff. The rocks force the waves to break and also absorb the waves' energy.
Disadvantages
Rocks are often from other parts of the coastline or abroad
Can be expensive to transport as a result
Do not fit in with the local geology
Can be very intrusive
Soft engineering
Examples
Beach replenishment
The addition of sand or shingle onto the beach to make it wider or higher. The sediment is usually obtained offshore locally so that it blends with the existing beach material. Usually transported onshore by barge.
Advantages
Blends in with the existing beach
Increases tourist potential by increasing the size of the beach
Disadvantages
Needs constant maintenance unless structures are built to hold the beach
Expensive
Dune fencing
Fences are constructed on a sandy beach along the seaward face of existing dunes to encourage new dune formation. These new dunes help to protect the existing dunes.
Advantages
Minimal impact on natural systems
Can control public access to protect other ecosystems
Costs £400-£2000 per 100m
Disadvantages
Can become unsightly, especially if the fences become broken
Regular maintenance required, especially after a storm
Dune regeneration
Sand dunes are effective buffers to the sea but are easily damaged and destroyed by trampling. Marram grass can be planted to help stabilise dunes and help them to develop.
Advantages
Relatively cheap
Costs £200-£2000 per 100m
Maintains a natural coastal environment that is popular with people and wildlife
Disadvantages
Time-consuming to plant the marram grass and fence areas off
Can be damaged by storms
People may not respond well to being prohibited from accessing planted areas.
Rivers
Soft Engineering
Floodplain Zoning
Advantages
Expensive buildings have reduced risk
Disadvantages
It is not always possible to switch land uses
River Restoration
Advantages
Reduces the risk of a major flood downstream
Looks natural
Slows river flow
Disadvantages
Can increase the risk of local flooding
Preparing for floods
Advantages
Time to minimise damage
How to prepare
Possessions can be saved
Disadvantages
Does not prevent floods
People may not be able to access the warnings
Floods can come too quick
Aforestation
Advantages
New habitats for animals
Environmental benefits
Economic benefits
Disadvantages
Reduces farmland
Hard Engineering
Dams and reservoirs
Advantages
Multi-purpose
Irrigation
Recreation
Flood prevention
Hydro-electric power generation
Water supply
Attracts tourists
Can generate power
Can release water slowly
Disadvantages
Very expensive
Often involves flooding large areas of land
Channel Straightening
Advantages
Increases river flow
Increases the capacity of the river
Disadvantages
Increases flood risk downstream
Requires frequent maintenance
Habitats are flooded
Embankments
Advantages
Increases the capacity of the river
Cheap
More sustainable and looks natural - rock/mud
Disadvantages
Increases flood risk downstream
Looks unnatural in some cases - concrete
Flood Relief Channels
Advantages
Reduces the threat of flooding
Disadvantages
Relief channel can also flood
Expensive to install
Fluvial Processes
Attrition - larger rocks smash together to form smaller, rounder rocks
Hydraulic action - water is forced into cracks. Air compressed, pressure increases. Cracks widen and parts break away.
Abrasion - rocks carried by the river scrape against the river bed. Rocks erode and become smaller.
Solution - the river is slightly acidic due to absorbed CO2 and humic acid from vegetation. Carbonated rocks dissolve.
Transportation Processes
Suspension - light material is carried in the water without touching the banks.
Deposition - large rocks at the top of the river are moved when there is high flow. Finer sediment is dropped downstream on banks due to lowered velocity.
Traction - rocks are rolled along the river bed. High deposition.
Saltation - small pebbles are picked up temporarily and bounced along the river bed.
Waterfall Formation
Found in upper stages of the river
Band of hard rock overlies softer rock
Falling water and rock erodes the soft rock below the waterfall
Soft rock undercut by erosional processes such as hydraulic action. The plunge pool is deepened.
The hard rock overhanging collapses under its own weight. Erosion continues to form a gorge.
V-shaped Valley formation
Upper course - discharge is low so it only erodes vertically
Valley sides broken down by weathering
Steepened valley sides
A steep, V-shaped valley is formed
Meanders and Ox-bow Lakes
The neck of the meander is slowly eroded.
Water takes the easiest route - the river straightens
The meander is cut off as there is deposition
and left as a meander
Deserts and Rainforests
Deserts
Characteristics
Lack of rain or cloud - consistent belt of high pressure at the tropics
Less than 250mm of rainfall a year
Opportunities for development
Energy
Coal - there are extensive lignite coal deposits in the Thar desert and a thermal plant has been developed at Giral
Solar - with its sunny, cloudless conditions the Thar desert is ideal for solar energy generation. At Bhaleri solar power is used in water treatment.
Oil - a large oilfield has been discovered in the Barmer district which could transform the local economy
Wind - Jaisalmer wind park was constructed in 2001. Recently, there has been a focus on developing wind power.
Farming
Most people in the desert use subsistence farming
Graze animals on the grassy areas and cultivating vegetables and fruit trees.
Commercial farming has seen an incline due to increased irrigation.
Construction of the Indira Ghandi canal in 1958.
Crops such as wheat and cotton now thrive in an area that used to be arid desert.
Mineral extraction
The desert region has valuable reserves of minerals which are used all over India and other parts of the world
Kaolin - used as a paper whitener
Gypsum - used in making plaster for construction
Feldspar - used in ceramics
Phosperherite - used in making fertilisers
Reserves of stone - the Sanu limestone is the main source of limestone for India's steel industry
Reserves of marble are quarried near Jodhpur to be used in the construction industry
Tourism
In recent years the Thar desert has become popular with tourists due to its impressive beautiful landscapes.
Thousands of people visit the Thar desert each year from the neighbouring country Pakistan
An annual desert festival
Desert safaris on camels
Challenges of development
Extreme temperatures
Plants and animals have to adapt in order to survive in the desert
High rates of evaporation lead to water shortages
Working outside in the heat of the day can be very hard, especially for farmers.
Water supply
Sources of water in the Thar desert
There are a few rivers that flow through the desert such as the River Luni but they only flow during rainfall and are intermittent.
Traditionally water is found in natural and man made ponds
Some water can be obtained from underwated aquifers
Problems
Population growth
Increase in farming
Increase in industry
Accessibility
Vast barren areas
Extreme temperatures
Can cause the tarmac to melt
Strong winds blow sand over the roads
Reducing desertification
Water management
Too much water leads to salinisation - a build up of salts
Degrades the soil
Tree planting
Tree roots bind the soil together and the leaves and branches provide shade, grazing for animals and fuel wood.
Appropriate technology
Many people living on the edges of deserts are poor
'Magic stones' - lines of stones to reduce soil erosion
Rainforests
Conditions
Tropical rainforest soils are infertile. Most nutrients are found at the surface where dead leaves decompose rapidly in the hot and humid conditions. Many plants and trees have shallow roots to absorb these nutrients.
The rainfall is high. This is because of an area of low pressure around the equator due to global atmospheric circulation.
Distinct wet season - lasts about 6 months.
High biodiversity - birds live in the canopy, mammals are well adapted to living in the trees, forest floor animals like rodents and deer.
Causes of deforestation in Malaysia
Logging
Malaysia became the largest exporter of tropical wood in the 1980s.
Clear felling was common
Road building
Areas of rainforest had to be cut down to make room for roads for machinery to reach mines and areas of logging.
Energy development
Bakun Dam
Finished in 2011 after decades of controversy
Reservoir flooded over 700km2 of forests and farmland.
Mineral extraction
Mining (mainly Tin and smelting) is common in Peninsular Malaysia
Commercial farming
Malaysia is the largest exporter of palm oil in the world
During the 1970s, large areas of land were cut down for palm oil plantations
Plantation owners receive 10-year tax incentives so increasing amounts of land has been converted into plantations.
Subsistence farming
Tribal people living in the rainforest practice subsistence farming.
'Slash and burn' - uses fire to clear the land and create nutrients for crops to be grown.
Population pressure
In the past, poorer urban families were encouraged to move to the countryside.
Between 1956 and the 1980s, approximately 15,000 hectares of forest was cut down for this reason.
Impacts of deforestation in Malaysia
Soil erosion
Removal of soil by wind and rain
Roots bind the soil together - deforestation means it can easily become loose and erode away
Loss of biodiversity
Contribution to climate change
Trees absorb CO2 - carbon sink
Trees give off moisture - without there would be a drier climate
The process of evaporation cools the air by using heat energy
Economic gains
Companies have to pay taxes to the government which can then be used to improve public services.
Hydro-electric power will provide cheap and plentiful energy
Improved transport infrastructure opens up new areas for tourism and industrial development.
Development of land for mining, farming and energy will lead to jobs directly (construction, farming) and indirectly (supply and support industries)
Products such as palm oil and rubber provide raw materials for processing industries
Minerals such as gold are very valuable
Economic losses
Pollution of water sources and a drier climate may lead to water shortages
Fires can cause harmful pollution. They can burn vast areas of valuable forest.
Plants that could bring medical benefits could become extinct
Rising temperatures could devastate some forms of farming such as growing tea, fruit and flowers.
The number of tourists attracted by rainforests would decrease
Climate change could have economic costs as people have to adapt to living in a warmer climate
Sustainable management of tropical rainforests
Conservation and education
Rainforest can be conserved in national parks and nature reserves
Educate local people to not destroy the forest - some people illegally log the forest
Selective logging and replacing
More sustainable than clear felling which clears out whole areas, selective logging picks certain trees to be cut down at certain times.
Ecotourism
Through income generated by Ecotourism, local people and governments can benefit by keeping their rainforests
Aims: introduces people into the natural world, benefits local communities and protect the environment for future generations.
International agreements
Debt reduction
Reduced debt in return for agreement that rainforests won't be deforested
Hardwood forestry
FSC - Forest Stewardship Council
Ensures that hardwood is sustainably sourced
Educates manufacturers and customers about the need to buy sustainable wood
Development Gap
Jamaica Case Study - Tourism
Main source of employment - 200,000 employed directly and indirectly
2014 - 24% of GDP. Expected to rise by 32% by 2024.
Construction of the New Street Station (£750 million) began in 2009 and was fully completed in 2015. The construction activity created more than 3,000 jobs.