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- - - - Lexicology is based on:
        
        Semantics
        
        Studies the meaning of linguistic expressions.
        
        it's divided in:
        
        Pragmatic semantics
        
        Studies the meaning of utterances in context.
        
        Sentence semantics
        
        Handles the meaning of a sentences and meaning relations between sentences.
        
        Lexical semantics
        
        Deals with words and meaning relationship among words.
        
        Morphology
        
        Is the study of morphemes and their arrangements in forming words.
        
        What are morphemes?
        Are the smallest unit that can carry meaning in a word.
        
        E.g. the word 'actor' can be divided into: 'act' (a verb) and '-or' (a suffix).
        
        Lexicography
        
        Is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.
        
        Dictionary
        Book listing words of a language with their meanings, data regarding pronunciation, usage and origin.
        
        Etymology
        
        Is the study of the whole history of words.
        
        E.g. Hamburger derives from the German city Hamburg plus suffix -er.
        
        Can arise:
        
        Folk etymology
        
        Process by which a word changes from through a mistaken assimilation, also call paronomasia.
        
        E.g. becoming a vegetarian is a big missed steak.
    - - Phonology is the study of the sounds of words.
        
        It is related to lexicology because:
        
        In words that sound similar the difference of sound (stress) may occur anywhere in the structure of the word.
        
        E.g. sheep and ship.
    - - There have been a number of attemps to discover some of the general principles on which vocabulary is organized. These attemps have focused on three main areas: that of individual words and their associations, that of semanticor lexical fields, and lastly that of word families.
    - - Every word is envolved in a network of associations which connect it with other terms in the language. Some of these association are based on similarity of meaning, others are purely formal, while others involve both form and meaning.
    - - Syntagmatic relations: they are combinatory relations in the presence of other linguistic elements, they occur between the successive elements of the statement, they are present.
        
        What is the relationship between paradigm and phrase?
        
        syntagmatic relationships there are possibilities of combination, paradigmatic relationships are functional contrasts, which encompass some differentiation.
    - - The treatment of words in terms of words families is a common approach in the lexicology of French. A family consist of a base form, its posible inflectional forms, and the words derived from it by prefixation and suffixation
    - - The notion of word class may also be used to account for the structure of the vocabulary as a whole.
- - - - Elements are known as Morpheme: minimal unit of
        meaning or grammatical function.
        
        It's divided in :
        
        Bound morphemes
        Are those forms that normally cannot be alone and are attached to another form, exemplified as re-, -ist, -ed, -s.
        
        There are two types:
        
        Derivational morphemes
        
        Used to make new words or words of a
        different grammatical category.
        
        E.g. the noun ´class´ can become the verb ´classify´ by the addition of the derivational morpheme -ify.
        
        Can be suffixes like -ment and -ify and also prefixes, such as re-, pre-, ex-, mis-, co-, un-.
        
        Inflectional morphemes
        
        Used to indicate the grammatical function of a word, and are used to show if a word is plural or singular, past tense or not, and if it's a comparative or possessive form.
        
        E.g. dogs, walked
        
        Never changes the grammatical category
        of a word.
        
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        Free morphemes
        Can
        stand by themselves as single words.
        
        There are two types:
        
        Lexical morphemes
        
        E.g. Set of ordinary nouns (girl, house), verbs (break, sit), adjectives (long, sad) and adverbs (never, quickly) .
        
        Is a content word such as a noun or verb.
        
        Functional morphemes
        
        Is used as a function word.
        
        E.g. articles (a, the), conjunctions (and, because), prepositions (on, near) and pronouns (it, me).
        
        E.g. new and tour
- - - - Syntax is important because it provide speakers with a regular structure or framework for conveying relationships between people, things, or ideas and the states, events, or activities that they are involved in.
    - - The noun phrase:
        A noun phrase is a grammatically coherent syntactic constituent contain ing a head noun or a pronoun and optionally one or more modifiers. The noun or pronoun is the head of the noun phrase, or the element that determines the type of syntactic constituent and which is required in order for the modifiers, or dependents, to appear.
        
        The adpositional phrase:
        An adpositional phrase is a syntactic constituent consisting of an adposition (preposition or postposition), which is the head of the constituent, and a dependent noun phrase. There are two types of adpositional phrases. In prepositional phrases the preposition precedes the noun phrase, while in postpositional phrases the postposition follows the noun phrase. Languages usually have either prepos itional phrases or postpositional phrases, but not both. The noun phrase that occurs in an adpositional phrase is called the object of the adposition.
        
        Other types of syntactic constituents:
        a syntactic constituent consisting of a verb as the head of the phrase, and optional depen dents including adverbs, prepositional phrases, object noun phrases, and indirect objects in prepos itional phrases.
        
        Recursive structures in syntax:
        One of the interesting design principles of constituent structure is recursion, or the ability for a phrasal constituent to embed another phrasal constituent of the same type within it.
    - - Arguments and transitivity
        The term argument refers to a noun phrase, but rather than emphasizing its internal constituent structure, the term emphasizes the grammatical status of the argument in relation to the verb. There are two types of arguments: core arguments and oblique arguments. Core arguments are those that have a grammatical relationship with the verb. Oblique arguments do not have a grammatical relationship with the verb.
        
        transitivity. Verbs that can take at most one core argument are referred to as intransitive; verbs that can take at most two core arguments are referred to as transitive; and verbs that can take at most three core arguments are referred to as ditransitive.
        
        Grammatical relations: subjects
        Languages across the world differ in the grammatical properties that define subjects. languages differ in the grammatical properties that define the subject grammatical relation.
        
        Grammatical relations: objects
        objects have different grammatical properties from subjects. In English, objects directly follow the verb; these are called direct objects.
        
        Grammatical relations versus semantic case roles:
        It is important to differentiate these grammatically defined relationships from the semantic relationships between arguments and verbs. The semantic relationships between verbs and arguments are referred to as semantic case roles.
    - - Clause-combining: coordination versus subordination
        A complex sentence is a sentence with more than one clause. Clauses can be combined either by coordinating two independent clauses using a conjunction, thereby creating the larger unit, or by placing one clause inside of another as a dependent (or subordinate) element. There are three distinct ways by which subordinate clauses are made dependent to a matrix clause, so there are three types of subordinate clauses: adverbial clauses, relative clauses, and complement clauses.
        
        Clause-combining: coordination versus subordination
        Coordination combines two clauses in linear sequence using a conjunction. Clauses combined through coordination form sentences that behave as single cohesive syntactic units.
        
        Adverbial clauses
        Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that are linked to a matrix clause using either an adverbial conjunction or an affix that specifies the semantic relationship between clauses
        
        Complement clauses
        Complement clauses are dependent clauses that function as noun phrase arguments of verbs.
        
        Relative clauses
        relative clauses are embedded within noun phrases and function as dependent modifiers of nouns. The noun, relative clause, and any other noun phrase elements together form a single cohesive noun phrase. we can structurally contrast complement clauses with relative clauses. With complement clauses, an embedded clause is an entirenoun phrase, while with relative clauses, an embedded clause is within a noun phrase, following the noun that it modifies.
- - - - Words preserve their form and frequently their grammatical function while undergoing semantic changes due to linguistic and extra-linguistic factors such as the evolution of culture.
- - - - LEXICAL SHIFTS
        
        A word on preserve its form and it may as well shifts its meaning but this is true only in the particular case of very
        few ready-made binomials.
        
        Metanalysis: based on greek etimology the term was coined by otton jespersen to denote a change un the way the elements in a phrase or sentence are interpreted and used.
        
        Metathesis is a greek term which entered english via latin in the sixteenth century. in lexicology, this term refers to “the process of whereby segments are switched round in a word” .
        
        Deflection. justifies sounds in english language. if we talk on lexicology terms show modificatiions from the old english
      - EVOLUTIONARY SHIFTS
        
        SEMANTIC SHIFTS
        
        Has equivalents that are presumably questionable if they are placed against a lexicological background.
        
        BASE-ALTERING WORD
        FORMATIONS
        
        Corruption. It is related not only to politics and politicians but high officials in national institutions.
        
        False etymology" and "false analogy" are syntagms which account for the lexical alterations that appear to be consequential to misinterpretations of already existing words
        
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