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What is the effect of chemicals in food and drink on cellular functions? -…
What is the effect of chemicals in food and drink on cellular functions?
Define:
Chemicals
This basic definition is incredibly broad, and goes far beyond food and drinks
More specific definition: A substance obtained by a chemical process or producing a chemical effect (Merriam-Webster, 2023)
Basic definition: Any substance that has a defined composition (nrc.gov, 2020)
This definition allows for greater specificity and depth in researching this question
Foods and drinks
Any nutritious substance that a person eats or drinks (Law Insider, 2015)
Does not include medicines, other substances treating or preventing illness, disease or other injury, or food and drink containing these
Cellular function
Basic life processes, including but not limited to cell division and replication, respiration, protein and lipid synthesis, etc
Effect
Noun: A change which is a result or consequence of an action or other cause
Metals
Heavy metals
Mercury: Highly toxic
Damages DNA
Induces mitochondrial dysfunction, reducing ATP synthesis (Carocci et al, 2014)
Alters protein tertiary and quarternary structure through binding to sulfhydryl groups (ScienceDirect.com, n.d.)
Affects neurological functions
Definition: Any metallic chemical element with a relatively high density, and toxic or poisonous at low concentrations (Lenntech.com, 2019)
Consumed through: (Lenntech.com, 2019)
Enter bodies through air, food and water
Intake via the food chain (i.e. consumption foods which may have consumed contaminated food sources
Water with naturally heavy concentrations of heavy metals
Contaminated water, which can also contaminate marine life we consume
Industrial and consumer waste, e.g. spillage
Acid rain breaking down soils, causing heavy metal leaching into waterways
Cadmium
Bone defects (osteoporosis, osteomalacia)
Long-term exposure linked to renal dysfunction
Obstructive lung disease, lung cancer
Arsenic (All information from Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2010)
Binds to particular enzymes, disrupting their function
Interferes with cellular respiration
Impairs formation of glucose (gluconeogenesis)
Reduces oxidative phosphorylation
Inhibits the pyruvate oxidation pathway and the citric acid cycle
Known carcinogen
Causes cell injury and death
Lead (All information from Gearing, 2016)
Disrupts movement and storage of calcium, causing cell stress, leading to neuron and other brain cell death
Reduces amount of calcium entering cell, reducing stimulation of neurotransmitters
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Cellular functions
Human (Eukaryotic) cells
All functions from (Encyclopaedia.com, n.d.)
Protein and lipid synthesis and secretion
Smooth and rough endoplasmic Reticulum(s)
Ribosomes
Golgi Body
Transport of substances (All information from SACE curriculum)
Fluid-mosaic model (Image source: Bioninja.com, 2019)
Various proteins involved in transport of water, ions, other nutrients
Metabolism (All information from SACE curriculum)
The term for all chemical reactions occurring in the body
In relation to food and drink, refers to the breakdown and removal (excretion) of nutrients and other substances in food and drinks
All metabolic pathways happen in small steps, regulated through the use of various enzymes and co-factors such as vitamins
Respiration (All information from SACE curriculum)
Aerobic respiration
Glycolysis --> Citric Acid Cycle --> Oxidative phosphorylation
Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen, and is the breakdown of glucose with oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (as ATP)
Various regulations: Includes proteins and enzymes
Influenced by ATP, ADP, and AMP levels
Temperature and pH can affect enzymes involved in the pathway
Anaerobic respiration
Glycolysis only
C6H12O6 --> 2C3H6O3
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absense of oxygen, and is the breakdown of glucose into lactic acid, with a net gain of 2 ATP. It cannot be maintained in the long term
The cell cycle (All information from SACE curriculum)
Cell division (Mitosis)
Regulated by genes which code for regulatory proteind
When disrupted, can lead to the development of cancerous cells and tumours
Cells may undergo apoptosis at various stages of the cycle should things go awry
Essential for healthy function and development
Flavour agents
MSG (Monosodium glutamate)
Often added to restaurant foods, canned foods and soup, and deli meats (Zeratsky, 2018)
Effects
Reports of various symptoms associated with MSG consumption, labelled as MSG Symptom Complex (Zeratsky, 2018)
Weakness, headache, sweating, numbness, nausea, chest pain, numbness, quickened heartbeat (Zeratsky, 2018)
Overstimulation of glutamate receptors upon excitotoxin exposure, can negatively affect nerve and heart cells (Advanced Naturopathic, 2017)
Negatively impacts thymus and spleen; affects lymphocyte production levels, as well as the lymphocytes which are produced (Hyperbiotics, n.d.)
Disrupts interleukin (signalling molecule for regulation of the immune system) levels (Hyperbiotics, n.dd)
Study results have not been fully consistent on establishing links between MSG and negative impacts on cellular function, thus MSG is currently still an FDA-approved substance, and further studies are required to assess its effects on cells (Zeratsky, 2018)
The salt form of glutamate, a neurotransmitter - a chemical used for nerve cell signalling (Sammy, 2020)
An excitatory neurotoxin (excitotoxin) which overstimulates neuron receptors, which facilitate brain cell communication (Advanced Naturopathic, 2017)
Cysteine: Also a preservative
Important amino acid for making proteins (University of Rochester Medical Center, n.d.)
Linked to neurological disease (Sammy, 2020)
May interfere with insulin function (University of Rochester Medical Center, n.d.)
Casein: Also a naturally occurring compound
Binds to the cell membrane (Hira et al, 2003)
Triggers calcium signals between cells (Hira et al, 2003)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
A class of chemicals that occur naturally in coal, crude oil, and gasoline (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019)
Information from Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2013)
React with DNA to form adducts
Affects normal cell replication
Some are weak carcinogens, which can metabolise and become stronger carcinogens
When adducts form at sites critical for cell differentiation and growth
If these adducts remain unrepaired, this leads to mutations in cell replication
Tissues with rapid turnover rates have high cell division rates, and are most affected by exposure to PAHs
Artificial sweeteners
Aspartame
Information from: (Food Standards Australia and New Zealand, 2022)
Intense sweetener in low-energy or sugar-free foods
Found in: yoghurt, confectionery and carbonated beverages
An excitotoxin
Mixed studies on its safety, although Aspartame is an FDA-approved substance
Contains phenylalanine
Carries risks for people with phenylketonuria (PKU), a hereditary disorder leading to difficulty in processing phenylalanine (Sammy, 2020)
Stevia
Natural sugar substitute made from the leaves of the stevia plant (Begum, 2022)
Only the purified form is FDA-approved due to lack of research on the safety of other forms (Begum, 2022)
Does not contribute to increased glucose and insulin levels (Ajami et al, 2020)
Has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Ajami et al, 2020)
Very few studies showing negative impact on gut microbiota (Kasti et al, 2022)
Xylitol
Natural sugar alcohol found in plants, including many fruits and vegetables, used as a common sugar substitute (WebMD, 2023)
Known to prevent tooth decay (WebMD, 2019)
Does not raise insulin or blood glucose levels
May cause diarrhea and stomach pain for people suffering from irritable-bowel syndrome (IBS)
Splenda (Sucralose)
Modified version of sucrose, with hydroxyl groups replaced with chlorine (Brennan, 2021)
Passes through the body without being absorbed (Brennan, 2021)
Does not spike blood sugar levels (Brennan, 2021)
Some studies have shown sucralose reduces good bacteria n the gut (Brennan, 2021)
Zani et al (2023) showed sucralose may limit T cell differentiation and proliferation. It reduces T cell receptor signalling efficiency.
Saccharin
An artificial sweetener created by oxidizing the chemicals o-toluene sulfonamide or phthalic anhydride (Brown, 2019)
Food authorities say it is safe for human consumption (Brown, 2019)
Due to studies finding links between saccharin consumption and bladder cancer in rats, although observational studies have shown no clear relationship, the safety of sacchrin is debated by some (Brown, 2019)
Measuring the effects of chemicals
Change in concentration of reactants and by-products
Carbon dioxide
Lactic acid
Intermediate compounds in metabolic pathways
Oxygen
Checking for DNA damage (All information from Figueroa-González and Pérez-Plasencia, 2017)
Gel electrophorosis (Comet assay)
Measuring quantities of proteins produced by damaged DNA genes (protein assay)
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Halo assay
High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
Measuring rate of cell division (All information from Smith, 2013)
Measuring DNA content
Measuring metabolic activity
Staining dividing cells
High-content imaging
High sensitivity
Other chemicals in food and drink whose effects on the human body and cellular functions have been studied
Natural compounds
Capsaicin
Caffeine
Colouring agents
Natural
Anthocyanin
Phenolic compounds
Annatto extract
Artificial
Tartrazine
Indigo carmine
Nutrients
Fats/lipids
Proteins
Amino acids
Vitamins
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
Minerals
Dietary fibre
