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UNIT 4 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN BEINGS, by nurin syafiqah umaira -…

- - - - Stage 2 – Instrumental purpose and exhange
      - Stage 1 – Orientation toward punishment and obedience
    - - Stage 3 – Maintaining mutual relations, approval of others, the golden rule
      - Stage 4 – Social concern and conscience
    - - Stage 5 – Morality of contract, of individual rights and a democratically accepted law
      - Stage 6 – Morality of universal ethical principles
- - - - ◼ Ability to think and reason logically only about concrete, visible events to an ability to also think logically about abstract concepts.
      - ◼ Able to analyze situations logically in terms of cause and effect.
      - ◼ This higher-level thinking allows them to think about the future, evaluate alternatives, and set personal goals
      - ◼ Development of executive functions, or cognitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behavior, which in turn play a major role in character and personality formation.
      - ◼ Adolescences use trial and error to solve problems, and the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges.
  - - - ◼ At the age of 3-5, they can count, name colors, and tell you their name and age
      - ◼ They can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear.
      - ◼ Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after)
      - ◼ They can predict what will happen next in a story.
      - ◼ They also begin to enjoy the use of humor in stories.
      - ◼ Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios.
      - ◼ One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask “Why?”
    - - ◼ tend to answer questions intuitively as opposed to logically
      - ◼ developing the knowledge they will need to begin to use logical operations through pretend play
      - ◼ Animism : belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities
      - ◼ Animism : think that objects that move may be alive, but after age three, they seldom refer to objects as being alive
      - ◼ Artificialism: belief that environmental characteristics can be attributed to human actions (windy outside because someone is blowing very hard)
      - ◼ Transductive Reasoning : child fails to understand the true relationships between cause and effect.
      - ◼ Syncretism : tendency to think that if two events occur simultaneously, one caused the other ( if I blow to the bruise, the pain will gone).
      - ◼ At the age 4-7, child become very curious and ask many questions, beginning the use of primitive reasoning
        
        ◼ Centration : child focusing on the number of pieces of cake that each person has,regardless of the size of the pieces.
        
        ◼ Conservation : unaware of concept of conservation (altering a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties.
        
        ◼ Have difficulty understanding that an object can be classified in more than one way.
  - - - ◼ Cognition tended to shift from
      - ◼ dualism (absolute, black and white, right and wrong type of thinking)
      - ◼ multiplicity (recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known) to
      - ◼ relativism (understanding the importance of the specific context of knowledge—it’s all relative to other factors).
      - ◼ Commitment (make a choice and commit solution)
      - ◼ This is all affected by educational experiences
  - - - ◼ Children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior.
      - ◼ Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds.
      - ◼ By 5-8 months, child develops object permanence, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists
      - ◼ Exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people as a result of when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema
      - *assimilation: a cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and incorporate that new information inyo our existing knowledge.
        
        *schemas: an existing framework for an object or concept
  - - - ◼ Perceived control @ Control belief tend to peak in midlife and then decline into older adulthood
      - ◼ Interpersonal : Use more effective strategies than younger adults to navigate through social and emotional problems
      - ◼ Context of work : Perform less well on the job.
      - ◼ Problem solving : Develop more efficient strategies and rely on expertise to compensate for cognitive decline.
      - ◼ Tacit Knowledge : huge store of knowledge based on life experience.
  - - - Cognitive and Memory decline in Late Adulthood
      - ◼ Have more difficulty using memory strategies to recall details
      - ◼ Working memory loses some of its capacity. This makes it more difficult to concentrate on more than one thing at a time or to remember details of an event
      - ◼ Often compensate WM loses by writing down information
      - ◼ Demonstrates difficulty with multi-step verbal information presented quickly.
      - ◼ General slowing of cognitive processes
      - ◼ General deficit in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information.
      - • Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity responsible for temporarily holding information available for processing
  - - - ◼ Children’s attention spans tend to be very limited until they are around 11 years old. After that point, it begins to improve through adulthood.
      - ◼ They can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships.
      - ◼ Ability to plan and work toward goals.
      - ◼ Children at this age understand concepts such as the past, present.
      - Concrete operational stage of cognitive development
        
        ◼ Can use logic to solve problems tied to their own direct experiences.
        
        ◼ Has trouble solving hypothetical problems or considering more abstract problems
        
        ◼ Able to make use of logical principles in solving problems involving the physical world(understand the principles of cause and effect, size, and distance.
        
        ◼ Able to build schema and are able to classify objects in many different ways.
        
        ◼ Children also understand the concept of reversibility (water can be frozen and become liquid again).
        
        ◼ Understand the concept of reciprocity which means that changing one quality (in this example, height or water level) can be compensated for by changes in another quality (width).