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GOOD WRITING, relative pronouns, COHESION, CLEFT SENTENCES, shorter vs…
GOOD WRITING
RELATIVE CLAUSES
divided by
defining r.c.
The subject [...]
that
requires [...]
non-defining r.c.
The subject [...],
which
requires [...], and is led by [...]
defined by the presence of relative pronouns
recurrent mistakes
verb form after relative pronoun
pay attention to the subject (agreement)
using that or which and vice-versa
always prefer which (as long as it's not for people)
VOCABULARY AND CHOICE
collocations
for instance
simple sentence
work is
done
[...] everyone can
have
[...]
improved sentence
work is
processed/completed/carried out
[...] everyone can
access/obtain/receive
[...]
[...]
have
the same responsabilities
bear/shoulder/take on/take over
[...] has already
had
observable effects
bring about/brought about/exerted/produced
[...] should do is
better
relations
improve/develop/promote
[...] no one
wants
to risk
wishes/desires/chooses
[...] we must
think about
consider/appreciate/figure out/judge/study/analyze
[...] countries to
get
affect/influence/determine/achieve/produce
synonyms
for instance
[...]
important
role
fundamental/crucial/key/paramount/central :arrow_left:
it's a
big
concern [...]
considerable/grave/great/major/serious :arrow_left:
[...] an old industry
outdated/traditional/long-standing/outmoded :arrow_left:
[...] solve problems in
an easy way
comfortably/efficiently/easily
PUBLIC INFORMATION TEXT
modal verbs
command
will (
=/=
from future tense, it just expresses volition, if anything, it represents a present tense)
must
should
options
can
may
active vs passive
passive
modal verb +
be
+ past participle
will be granted / must be presented / will be based / must be requested
to be
:no_entry:
The Migration Department
must be informed
by people who intend to leave the country.
the passive is a more formal form :explode:
People who intend to leave the country
must inform
the Migration Department.
active to passive
:arrow_down:
important phrases
conditionals
if, in case...
(or will - present volition) present tense +
start a sentence
It is also recommended
that
.../ important to.../ equally recommended
that
...
dummy subjectives (expletive words)
relative pronouns
who
for people
which
for animals and things
referring to a whole sentence
:warning: prefer
which
over
that
(works for both defining and non-defining r.c.)
:warning: always used when preceded by a comma
whom
for people
:warning: in non-defining relative clauses
where
for places
that
either for
people
animals and things
only used in defining relative clauses :warning:
what
(not a pronoun) :forbidden:
COHESION
gramatical cohesive devices
pronouns
:left_right_arrow: reference
ellipsis
main ones
pronouns
personal ("he")
generic (one, you, we) (to make generalizations)
politically correct (they/their/them) (he/she)
possessive ("hers")
demonstrative ("these")
relative ("who")
articles
("the") (specific)
determiners
demonstrative ("this") (close) ("those") (further away)
possessive ("his")
comparatives
("the other")
adverbials
place ("here")
time ("back then")
references
(endophoric) inside the text
anaphoric
cataphoric
(exophoric) outside the text
"shared world"
CLEFT SENTENCES
used to
emphasize info
correct someone
structure
it
cleft sentence
(it + be + main focus) + "that" clause (that + subject + verb)
She dropped her passport?
It was my passport / that she dropped.
(new info/old info)
:warning: that can be replaced by
who
or
which
(defining relative clauses)
:check: relative pronoun can be removed if it is the object
wh
cleft sentences
We need more time for this project.
Wh
at we need
is
/ more funding.
(old info/new info)
:warning: is considered in the singular
who/what/when/where/why/how
"
all
" replacement
I want more sleep.
All
I want is / more sleep.
do/does/did
structure
How did she survive?
All/What
she
did
/ was (to) find a water source and build a shelter under a tree.
:warning: exceptional use of do/did on positive sentences
The problem
did
cause chaos among the population.
:warning: as a rule: He
went
(did go :forbidden:) to the store.
EMPHASIS
INDEED
:warning:
:forbidden: don't use it at the start of the paragraph
it should confirm something before mentioned (emphasis)
at the end
very
+
adjective
+
indeed
structure
The action was very profitable
indeed
.
INVERSIONS
negative adverbs
negative
on no account, in no way, rarely, seldom, never before,
not only... but also
, never, no sooner, not until, no more, in no way, on no account, no longer, at no time
"only"
...then, later, once, by, when, if, after, now...
used at the beginning of sentence
invert the following subject and verb
Only then
did I realise
that I had forgotten my key.
Not until
I arrive shall I buy a ticket.
Not since
I was in Belgium have I had such fun.
:warning: not negative
however, furthermore, on the other hand, although, hence
word order
inversion (of the normal structure)
negative adverb
+
auxiliary verb
+
subject
+
verb
(or adjective)
Not only/Seldom/Never + do/did, have/has / can / is + it/they / a country name / infinitive -ed/-ing
The event
is
not only
held once every year, it is also very competitive. :leftwards_arrow_with_hook:
Not only
is
the event
held once every 8 years it is also very competitive.
Never before
have(aux)
I
seen(main)
such a minute detail... (be careful with inversion of subject and verb)
can't find an auxiliary?
use do/did
Seldom
does
the government
criticize
a president.
Not only
does
the conflict in Ukraine have a ideological plan, but
it
(can be removed)
also
focuses on damaging the US hegemony.
CONDITIONALS
"
if
"
zero
present -- present
more emphatic/factual :warning:
If
all the countries
lockdown
, the virus
has
difficulty in spreading.
improved
If
:arrow_right: Should/Whether (... or not)
1st
present -- will + infinitive
2nd
past -- would + infinitive
3rd
past perfect -- would + infinitive verb
past perfect -- would + have + past part participle
HEDGING LANGUAGE
cautious/vague/evasive statements
introductory phrases
It
appears
that...
It
can
be argued that...
We
can
assume
that...
It is likely to
be the case that...
It is
probable
that...
It is
conceivable
that...
It
can
be concluded that...
vague
about/around, kind of, sort of, feel, seems...
modal
can, could,
may
,
might
, should, would
nouns
assumption, likelihood, possibility, probability
adverbs
conceivably, perhaps, possibly, probably, usually
modal adjectives
possible
, probable, likely,
unlikely
shorter
vs
longer
sentences?
shorter :arrow_right: informing
longer :arrow_right: summary
PUNCTUATION
:forbidden: avoid
brackets when summarizing
neither unnecessary dashes/commas (clarity)
:explode: three commas at most per sentence
lift whole phrases from main text
quotation marks
contractions (informal sign)
underlining names of reference materials
apostrophe
when talking about governments and so on, treat it as a singular entitiy
if necessary, use it when talking about a specific thing that can be possessed
COMPOSITION
INTRODUCTION
tenses
present simple
argument/opinion (more emphatic) :check:
simple past
the time is finished (don't use it for the introduction :no_entry:)
present perfect
time relation but linked to the argument :check: