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Geography - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Geology
        
        Igneous rocks
        
        Formed by magma that has cooled either on the ground surface (extrusive) when a volcano erupts or below the ground (intrusive).
        
        They are tough and resistant to erosion; igneous rocks often form uplands.
        
        Some examples are granite, basalt, and gabbro
        
        Sedimentary Rocks
        
        Formed from the accumulation and compaction of sediment usually in the ocean.
        
        Variable resistance to erosion
        
        Some examples are chalk ridges and escarpments, limestone, and sands and gravels.
        
        Metamorphic rocks
        
        They are existing rocks that have undergone change due to extreme heating or pressure
        
        They are very tough and resistant to erosion, often forming uplands.
      - Climate
        
        Climate is the long-term average weather conditions, calculated over a period of 30 years.
        
        The climate of the UK has a role to play in creating the UK's distinctive landscapes but it is also affected by the landscape!
        
        Rainfall
        
        The uplands - especially in the west tend to receive a high proportion of the rainfall, whereas with the lowlands in the south and east tend to be drier.
        
        The moist air from the Atlantic is forced to rise and cool over the western uplands, forming rain-bearing clouds.
        
        Temperature
        
        Temperatures are generally lower in the uplands than the lowlands, with frost becoming common hazards in the winter
        
        Temperature falls on an average by 0.6 degrees per 100 meters of altitude.
      - Human activity
        
        Human activity has transformed the landscape of the UK since the last ice age (about 10,000) years ago.
        
        Uplands
        
        Sparsely populated due to the harsh climate and the steep relief.
        
        Human activity is limited to extensive sheep rearing and forestry.
        
        Reservoirs have been created in some areas to supply water and to generate hydroelectric power.
        
        In recent years, wind farms have been constructed in some upland areas, exploiting the strong winds.
        
        Lowlands
        
        These areas are more densely populated due to the moderate climate and gentler relief.
        
        Commercial farming dominates the countryside and much of this landscape is urbanised or criss-crossed by transport and service infrastructure.
    - - Weathering
        
        Weathering involves the decomposition of rock in its original place at or close to ground surface.
        
        Two main types of weathering:
        
        Chemical
        
        Carbonation
        
        Carbon dioxide is dissolved in rainwater and forms a weak carbonic acid.
        
        It then reacts with calcium carbonate - limestone and chalk - to form calcium bicarbonate, which is soluble and can be carried away by water.
        
        Hydrolysis
        
        Acidic rainwater reacts with feldspar in granite, turning it into clay and causing the granite to crumble.
        
        Oxidisation
        
        Oxygen dissolved in water reacts with iron-rich minerals, causing rocks to crumble.
        
        Mechanical
        
        Freeze-thaw
        
        Repeated cycles of freezing and thawing caused water trapped in rocks to expand and contract, eventually causing rock fragments to break away.
        
        Salt weathering
        
        Crystals of salt, often evaporated from seawater, grown in cracks and holes, expanding to cause rock fragments to flake away.
      - Mass movement
        
        Mass movement is active at the coast, particularly where the cliffs are undercut by the sea.
        
        It includes sliding and slumping as well as rockfalls and mudflows.
        
        Sliding
        
        This involves rock or loose material sliding downhill along a slip plane.
        
        They are often triggered by the ground shaking or heavy rain
        
        Slumping
        
        This commonly involves the collapse of weak rocks, such as sands and clays, often found at the coast.
        
        Slumping often results from heavy rainfall when the sediments become saturated and heavy.
        
        Common forms of mass movement include:
        
        Rockfall - individual fragments or chunks of rock falling of a cliff face.
        
        Landslide - blocks of rock sliding rapidly downslope along a linear shear-plane.
        
        Mudflow - saturated material (usually clay) flowing down hill, which may involve elements of sliding and slumping as well.
        
        Rotational slip/slump - slumping of loose material often along a curved shear-plane.
      - Erosion
        
        Involves the wearing away and removal of material by a moving force.
        
        The main processes of erosion are:
        
        Abrasion
        
        This is also known as the 'sandpapering' effect
        
        Loose rock particles carried by the water scrape against solid bedrock. It can involve loose particles being flung against a sea cliff or river bank by the water.
        
        Hydraulic action
        
        This involves the sheer power of the water, often compressing air into cracks in sea cliffs or river banks causing rocks to break away.
        
        Attrition
        
        Erosion caused when rocks and boulders transported by waves bump into each other and break up into smaller pieces.
        
        Over time the rocks become smaller and more rounded.
        
        Solution
        
        The dissolving of soluble rocks, such as chalk and limestone.
      - Transportation
        
        This involves the movement of eroded sediment from one place to another.
        
        Commonly involves:
        
        Traction - large particles rolling along the seabed.
        
        Saltation - a bouncing or hopping motion by pebbles too heavy to be suspended.
        
        Suspension - particles suspended within the water.
        
        Solution - chemicals dissolved in the water.
    - - Headlands and bays
        
        These are characteristic features of a discordant coastline where cocks of different hardness are exposed at the coast.
        
        Headlands form resistant promontories jutting out into the sea.
        They are separated by bays of less-resistant rock where the land has been eroded bay by the sea.
        
        Erosion at the headlands creates landforms such as cliffs and wave-cut platforms. Deposition occurs in the sheltered waters of the bay, forming a beach.
      - Beaches
        
        A beach is a depositional landform made of sand or pebbles extending from the low water line to the upper limit of storm waves.
        
        Beaches may exhibit a range of small landforms such as ridges called berms, ripples or shallow water-filled depressions called runnels.
        
        Sandy beaches - commonly formed in sheltered bays, associated with relatively low-energy constructive waves. Flat an extensive beaches are often backed by sand dunes.
        
        Pebble beaches - Commonly associated with higher-energy coastlines where destructive waves remove finer sand, leaving behind coarser pebbles. Beaches tend to be steep and narrow with distinctive high tide berms.
      - Caves, arches and stacks
        
        They are commonly formed at headlands where relatively tough rock juts out into the sea. They are formed in several steps:
        
        1. Cracks in the cliff are eroded and enlarged by hydraulic action to form a wave-cut notch at the base of the cliff. This is eroded further by hydraulic action and abrasion to form a cave.
        
        2. The cave is eroded right through the headland to form an arch.
        
        3. Over time, processes of erosion widen the arch and processes of weathering weaken its roof.
        
        4. Eventually the roof collapses to form an isolated pillar of rock called a stack. Over time the stack will be eroded and will collapes to form a stump, which is only exposed at low tide.
      - Splits
        
        A split is a sand or shingle ridge most commonly formed by long sure drift operating along a stretch of coastline.
        
        At its end, where it is more exposed to variations in wind and waves, it tends to curve to form a hook or recurved tip. Some spits have sand dunes on them.
    - - Waterfalls
        
        A steep fall of river where its course crosses between different rock types, resulting in different rates of erosion.
        
        Typically formed where fast-flowing water plummets over a vertical cliff - often a considerable drop - into a deep plunge pool below.
        
        Hydraulic action and abrasion are mainly responsible for eroding the plunge pool, which can be several meters deep in the center.
      - Gorge
        
        A narrow, steep-sided valley, often formed as a waterfall retreats upstream.
        
        Erosion undercuts the hard rock forming the waterfall to create an overhang.
        
        Eventually this overhang collapses into to the plunge pool causing the waterfall to retreat upstream.
        
        Over many thousands of years, this process of undercutting and collapse continues and a gorge is formed immediately downstream.
      - Ox-bow lakes
        
        A horseshoe-shaped lake that forms when a meander is separated from the main river channel as a result of erosion.
        
        They represent the old meander bends that have been cut off by faster flowing water during times of flood.
        
        Gradually, without water flowing through them, they will become filled with silt and marshy vegetation will grow.
      - Meanders
        
        A bend in the river that results from the flow of water along it. Commonly found in a river's middle and lower course.
        
        The fast flowing water swings around the outside bend of a meander, eroding the banks to form a river cliff. Here the water is deep.
        
        On the inside bend, where the velocity is lower, disposition continues forming a slip-off slope. In this way, the meander develops an asymmetrical cross profile.
        
        Over time, lateral erosion on the outside bend widens the river valley and creates an extensive, flat floodplain.
        
        Meandering rivers are most commonly associated with the following environmental conditions:
        
        gentle gradients
        
        relatively fine sediments
        
        steady precipitation regime throughout the year.
        
        A common feature of meandering rivers is an alternating pattern of shallows and pools.
      - V-shaped valleys
        
        A steep-sided, narrow river valley that takes the for of a V-shape in its cross profile.
        
        Formed by river erosion as the river cuts down vertically into the mountainous landscape.
        
        Weathering and mass movement on the valley sides are responsible for broadening the top of the valley profile.
        
        Interlocking spurs - 'fingers' of land jutting into the valley - are common landforms in the upper course of a river.
      - Floodplains
        
        Extensive flat areas of land mostly mostly covered by grass.
        
        They are formed during flood conditions and are periodically and quite naturally inundated by water.
        
        during the flood, water containing large quantities of alluvium (river silt) pours out over the flat valley floor.
        
        The water slowly soaks away, leaving the deposited sediment behind.
        
        over hundreds of years, repeated flooding forms a thick alluvial deposit that is fertile and often used for farming.
      - Levees
        
        Raised banks along a river.
        
        Commonly found in the lower courses of rivers.
        
        Formed during flood conditions when water flows over the river banks on to the surrounding floodplain.
        
        As water overtops the river banks, there is a sudden localised reduction in the velocity of the water, which had previously been flowing very fast along the river channel.
        
        This causes sediment in suspension to be deposited at the river banks.
        
        Coarse sediment is deposited first and this traps the finer sediment.
        
        With each successive flood, the deposited sediment raises the river banks by as much as a few meters.
        
        Levees can be created artificially by people to contain water within a river channel to reduce the threat of flooding.
    - - North Norfolk
        
        North Norfolk coast is located in East Anglia in the east of England.
        
        A low-lying stretch of coastline with a variety of habitats including broad sandy beaches, salt marshes, sand dunes and some stretches of cliffed coastline, particularly east of Cromer.
        
        The landscape is famous for its 'big skies', attracting tourists and artists.
      - Geomorphic processes
        
        The North Norfolk coast is exposed to powerful waves from the north-east, the direction of maximum fetch (over 4000 km). When the winds come from the north-east, waves are more powerful.
        
        Longshore drift predominantly operates from east to west along this stretch of coastline, although opposing currents transport sediment southwards along the east coast of England, around the Wash.
        
        Mechanical weathering processes, such as freeze-thaw and mass movement, are very active on the cliffs in the east of the region, particularly between Overstrand and Happisburgh. Unlike longshore drift, these processes are more localised and smaller scale.
        
        Coastal erosion is active in the east, with coastal deposition dominating in the west.
      - How are geomorphic processes affected by geology and climate?
        
        Geology
        
        The entire region is underlain by the sedimentary rock chalk, which is exposed in places such as the base of the cliffs at Overstrand.
        
        Overlying the chalk is a think glacial sediment deposited by ice sheets that spread south from Scandinavia during the last glacial period.
        
        Cromer ridge - a 100-meter ridge is just inland from Cromer - is a terminal moraine, a glacial deposition that marks the furthest extent of ice advance.
        
        Sands and gravels deposited by glacial meltwater streams are found along parts of the coast to the west of the region.
        
        Till - unsorted glacial sediment - forms thick deposits along much of the coast, spreading some distance inland.
        
        These glacial sediments are extremely weak. They are prone to mass movement and are rapidly eroded by the sea. In parts of the east region, cliffs are retreating by over 1 meter.
        
        Climate
      - Coastal landforms
      - Impact of human activity and management
  - - - Air masses
        
        An air mass is a large body of air that transfers conditions of heat and moisture as it travels from its source area.
        
        The UK is affected by a number of very different air masses. This explains our very changeable weather.
        
        The masses
        
        Arctic Maritime Air Mass
        From - Arctic
        Properties - wet and cold
        Weather - snow in winter
        
        Polar Continental Air Mass
        From - Central Europe
        Properties - Cold in winter, hot in summer
        Weather - snow in winter, dry in summer
        
        Tropical Continental Air Mass
        From - North Africa
        Properties - Hot and dry
        Weather - Hot in summer
        
        Tropical Maritime Air Mass
        From - Atlantic
        Properties - Warm and moist
        Weather - cloudy, mild rain
        
        Polar Maritime Air Mass
        From - Greenland/Arctic sea
        Properties - wet and cold
        Weather - cold and showers of rain
      - North Atlantic drift
        
        This is a warm ocean current that originates in the Caribbean and transfers warm conditions to the western side of the British Isles and beyond to western Scandinavia. The North Atlantic Drift explains thy the western side of the UK tends not to experience severe winter weather.
      - Prevailing winds
        
        The prevailing direction of winds affecting the UK is from the south-west. Winds blow from this direction most of the time. Travelling over relatively warm Atlantic Ocean, this explains the moderate temperatures and high rainfall experienced in the UK.
      - How do air masses cause extreme weather?
        
        Tropical maritime: winter storms 2014
        
        In February 2014, the UK was battered by a succession of winter storms from the Atlantic, driven onshore by strong westerly winds. This was the stormiest period of weather experienced by the UK for 20 years.
        
        Strong winds and huge waves made conditions extremely dangerous around exposed coastlines - particularly in the south and west - and caused widespread transport disruption.
        
        The South West mainline railway was severely damaged at Dawlish, Devon, during the storm of 4-5 February, serving a key transport link to the South West for many weeks/.
        
        Huge waves overtopped coastal flood defenses and many coastal communities in Cornwall, Devon and Dorset experienced coastal flooding and damage to infrastructure, buildings and sea defences.
        
        Many trees were felled by the wind and on 12 February around 100,000 homes and businesses were without power. Roofs were damaged in Porthmadog, Gwynedd, and a member of the public was killed on 13 February after trees brought down power lines in Wiltshire.
        
        Artic maritime: heavy snow 2009-10
        
        The Arctic maritime air mass can bring heavy snow and extremely cold conditions particularly to Scotland and Northern England. The period from mid-December 2009 to mid-January 2010 brought very low temperatures and heavy snowfall to much of the UK. It was the most sever period of winter weather since 1981/1982.
        
        Night time temperatures regularly fell to below -10 degrees Celsius in Scotland.
        
        Widespread snow fell across the UK with up to 10-20 cm across parts of England and Wales and up to 30 cm in Scotland.
        
        Transport was badly affected - roads were blocked, trains cancelled and airports disrupted.
        
        Ice brought down power lines disrupting electricity supplies to over 20,000 homes,
        
        Several people died in accidents caused by ice and snow.
        
        Farm animals across the UK were also severely impacted, particularly sheep in mountainous areas.
    - - Case study: Somerset Levels, 2014
      - With the changing climate, flooding is becoming a major environmental challenge for the UK. The magnitude and frequency of future flood events are expected to be more severe in the future compared to the past.
      - Major flooding events in recent years in the UK.
        
        July 2007 - River Severn flooding inundated several towns and villages, including Tewkesbury.
        
        November 2009 - Cockermouth in Cumbria was severely affected by floods following torrential rain and several months of wet weather.
        
        January 2014 - Vast areas of the Somerset Levels were flooded following incessant rainfall for several weeks.
        
        November/December 2015 - a series of winter storms brought flooding to many northern and western regions, with the lake district suffering significant impacts.
    - - Providing food
        
        Commercial fishing
        
        Worldwide, over one billion people now rely on fish as their primary source of food.
        
        In the UK, commercial fishing utilises large sophisticated trawlers that are able to catch huge quantities of fish from the North Sea.
        
        The number of fishing boats has dropped by nearly a third since 1996.
        
        Commercial fishing has had significant impacts on fish stocks - landings of fish have more than halved since the 1970's, partly due to the decline of fish stocks.
        
        Some trawling practices have caught fish of all sizes, preventing smaller fish from growing to replace those that have been caught. This can result in very unbalanced ecosystems.
        
        Occasionally, unintended fish, such as dolphins, can be caught.
        
        Fishing boats often have to travel great distances to locate fish - this uses up diesel and increases the use of fossil fuels.
        
        Farming
        
        Whilst this has produced a high level of food security in the UK, environments and ecosystems have been significantly.
        
        Hedges have been removed to enable fields to become larger, accommodating big machines and maximising yields.
        
        Intensive farming practices no longer involve fallow periods during with fields can recover, leading to soil becoming friable, making them prone to soil erosion.
        
        Farming in the UK has become intensive, using machinery, technology and chemicals to maximise production.
        
        Machinery can compress soils, leading to surface flooding.
        
        Chemicals used in fertilisers and pesticides can lead to water pollution.
      - Providing energy
        
        Wind farms
        
        Fracking
      - Providing water
  - - - What is trade?
        
        Trade is the buying and selling of goods and services between countries
        
        It involves imports and exports
        
        Planes, container ships, and trains are generally used and a way of transporting the goods from one country to another.
      - Who are the UK's trading partners?
        
        The most important trading partners are those that are members of the EU.
        
        The USA is an important historic trading partner.
        
        Over time trade with China has been growing significantly.
        
        Trade is also important with former colonies, now members of the Commonwealth
      - Imports to the UK
        
        The main bulk of the UK's imports by value are manufactured products, in particular cars, electrical items and clothing.
        
        Most of the items imported from China - clothing and electronics - are cheaper than alternatives made in the UK.
        
        The UK is a relatively wealthy economy so expensive items such as cars from Germany have a large market
        
        Petroleum and petroleum products are important imports, providing the UK with fuel and versatile raw materials for the chemicals industry.
        
        Top ten trading partners for imports to the UK (2014)
        Germany - £56bn
        Netherlands - £34bn
        USA - £32.1bn
        China - £31.1bn
        France - £24.8bn
        Belgium - £20.8bn
        Irish republic - £18.2bn
        Norway - £16.8bn
        Italy - £15.2bn
        Spain - £12.5bn
      - Trade deficit
        
        It is important to have a balance between exports and imports.
        
        If imports exceed exports a country has a trade deficit.
        In the long-term this can be expensive for the country.
        
        The UK has a trade deficit of about £2.0 billion per year. Recently, this has fallen slightly due to a reduction in imports and an increase in the export of manufacturing products.
      - Exports from the UK
        
        Whilst the USA is the main export destination , most of the UK's exports go to Europe and, in particular, to EU countries
        
        The UK's main exports are engineering, oil, and vehicles.
        The fastest growing exports in 2014 were:
        Gems
        Precious metals
        Coins
        
        The UK's manufacturing sector - motor vehicles and aeronautical engineering - also showed an increase in 2014
        
        Top ten UK export countries (2014)
        United States - 11.8%
        Germany - 9.8%
        Netherlands - 7.4%
        Switzerland - 6.6%
        France - 5.9%
        Ireland - 5.9%
        China - 5.1%
        Belgium - 4.1%
        Italy - 2.8%
        Spain - 2.8%
    - - What makes the UK special?
        
        The UK is a country of immigrants.
        
        The UK is a country of physically and human contrasts. There are some significant variations across the UK at both regional and local scale.
        
        Through all ages people from all over the world have arrived in the UK bringing with them a rich cultural heritage.
        
        Immigration still continues today as the UK welcomes people from war-torn parts of the world, such as Syria, and from other countries in the EU.
        This accounts for the UK's rich heritage and it cultural, social and economic diversity.
      - Employment patterns.
        
        Over the last 25 years, the patterns of employment have changed a great deal. These are the main trends.
        
        1. Women are encouraged to work and follow careers
        Employers offer flexible working hours and often help with child care.
        The government provides financial support for child care to enable women to return to work.
        Work places increasingly provide creche and child care facilities on
        
        2. Increasing number of people are part time or self-employed.
        People are seeking a better work-life balance prefer to work from home.
        The widespread availability of high-speed internet access enables people to work on the move or from home.
        
        3. flexible working hours
        People increasingly choose to operate flexible working hours, maybe combining office work with working from home.
        Some people work during the evenings or overnight.
        The availability of mobile phones enables people to work on the move.
        
        4. De-industrialisation
        As the UK has de-industrialised, jobs in manufacturing have been replaced by employment in the services or tertiary sector, such as education and healthcare.
        A new quaternary sector has developed with jobs in research, information technology and the media.
      - Income
        
        Patterns of average income
        
        Whilst the UK's average salary is about £26,500, there are huge disparities in incomes in the UK.
        
        Top Premier League footballers now earn over £500,000 a week.
        
        The chief executives on the top 100 FTSE companies earn the equivalent of the UK's average yearly salary in just two and a half days.
        
        80% of new jobs have salaries of less than £16,640 per year for a 40-hour week. (A high proportion of these are working in vital health, education and social services.)
        
        Working on the minimum wage of £6.70/hour brings an annual salary of just over £13000.
        
        Disposable income
        
        This is the money that people have to live on once their taxes, pensions, and mortgage/rent have been paid
        
        The UK's average disposable income is about £17,500
        
        There are huge variations in the UK's average disposable income across the UK and within regions.
        
        The greatest range is within London where the average is £16,801 in Barking and Dagenham compared with an average of £43,577 in Westminster.
        
        Residents in Westminster have, on average, four times the disposable income of residents in Leicester.
        
        The Midlands and Northen Ireland have the lowest disposable incomes in the UK.
      - Life expectancy
        
        The average life expectancy in the UK is now 81.
        
        It has risen consistently in recent years as health care, diets, and standards of living have improved. People are now living more than 5 years longer, on average, than in 1990.
        
        Life expectancy is not equal across the UK.
        
        It is highest in the South East (82.4 years) and lowest in Scotland (79.1 years).
        
        Men living in Blackpool live an average of 8 years fewer than men living in the City of London and 9 years fewer than men living in South Cambridgeshire, which has the highest life expectancy.
        
        In England, women living in Manchester have the lowest life expectancy.
        
        These disparities reflect variations in incomes and quality of life across the UK.
        
        Poor diet and smoking can are the biggest risk leading to premature death or disability.
        
        Average life expectancy by UK region in 2015.
        South East England - 82.4
        East of England - 82.2
        South West England - 82.0
        Greater London - 81.4
        East Midlands - 81.2
        West Midlands - 80.9
        Yorkshire and the Humber - 80.6
        Wales - 80.3
        North East England - 80.1
        North West England - 80.0
        Northern Ireland - 79.6
        Scotland - 79.1
      - Educational attainment
        
        In 2015 across England, 68.8% of GCSE entries gained a A* to C grade. This was a slight increase, but there were wide regional variations.
        
        London recorded the best results, with 72% achieving A* to C grades.
        
        The highest values were the rich London boroughs, such as Kensington and Chelsea.
        
        The region of Yorkshire and the Humber recorded just 65% A* to C grades.
        
        The lowest values were in towns in northern England, such as Knowsley (40.8%) and Middlesbrough (40.6%)
      - Access to broadband
        
        Today almost 100% of households in the UK can access the internet and over 90% of households have access to superfast (30Mbs+) broadband.
        
        The pattern of broadband availability in the UK broadly reflects the pattern of the UK's population.
        
        High availability in London and the South East, together with the cities in the north of England.
        
        Low availability in the more remote parts of the UK (for example Wales, Scotland and South West England).
        
        Numerous small pockets of low availability across the UK, including within those areas with a generally good availability (for example parts of London and the South East)
      - Ethnicity
        
        In the UK, ethnic groups tend to be immigrants associated with foreign nationalities such as Bangladeshi or Pakistani.
        
        Whilst ethnic groups have settled widely across the UK, there is a concentration in major cities and , in particular in London where there are bout 3 million foreign-born residents.
        
        Increasingly, residential areas in the UK are becoming ethnically mixed. However some ethnic groups do tend to form distant clusters in cities, especially Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and some Black Africans. With low incomes and limited job security ethnic groups may find themselves living in relatively deprived areas in the inner city.
    - - What is the pattern of development in the UK?
        
        Patterns of household wealth
        Development in the UK is not even. There is what is known as the North-South divide that is measured by house hold wealth.
        Disparity exists within the 'south' - the South-East region is much wealthier than the other regions - over 13 per cent of households have a total wealth of close to £1m a year.
        This first image shows the North-South divide.
        
        Patterns of heath
        This second image show the deaths resulting from coronary heart disease. This health indicator also shows a clear North-South divide. High rates of coronary heart diseases are most often associated with lifestyle issues including smoking, diet, and exercise. Poverty and standards of living are also important factors affecting people's health.
        
        Imbalances within regions
        Despite the clear regional trends indicated by the two images, regional averages do hide huge imbalances. Within all regions there will be some very wealth individuals and some who are very poor. For example in London:
        
        There are over 7500 people who sleep on the streets each night.
        
        The borough of Tower Hamlets is the third most deprived borough in England and has the highest rate of poverty in the country.
        
        In the borough of Islington, the mortality rate coronary heart disease is 144 per 100,000 higher than any of the regional figures in the second image.
      - What are the causes of uneven development?
        
        Geographical locations
        London is the center for economic activity and wealth creation in the UK, mainly due to its role as capital of the UK.
        
        London has long been one of the world's main trading centers.
        
        It is the UK's major hub for business, finance and media.
        
        Many national and international companies have their head quarters in London.
        
        As London has grown, wealth has extended out into the rest of the South East.
        
        Many people who work in London now commute from the 'home countries', choosing to live in more pleasant rural surroundings.
        
        The areas around London have witnessed tremendous economic growth.
        
        Cities like Cambridge have become core growth centers.
        
        Increasingly, London and the South East had benefited from trade with Europe.
        
        London and the South East have excellent access to the continent
        
        There are fast Eurostar rail services through the Channel Tunnel.
        
        There are several ferry routes and many air connections from London's airports, including City Airport in the center of London.
        
        Regions in the north and wet of the UK are more distant from the European mainland. Despite good transport links with cities such as Manchester and Glasgow, many rural areas are remote and inaccessible, Whilst some Northern cities have a wealthy base, the rural districts are often much poorer unlike the wealthy rural areas in the South East.,
        
        Economic changes:
        Before Industrial Revolution -
        Most people in the UK worked in farming, mining or related activities - the primary sector.
        Industrial Revolution (late 19th century) -
        People moved to the towns and cities for work - making steel, ships or textiles (the manufacturing sector). During this period, much of the UK's growth was centred on the northern coalfields. Heavy industries and engineering thrived in the cities and a great deal of wealth was generated.
        De-industrialisation (mid-late 20th century) -
        Many industries in the 'north' closed, mainly due to the competition from abroad, and people lost their jobs. In 2015, the Redcar steelworks of Teesside closed with the loss of some 1700 jobs. This had a huge impact on the community and the economy of the region.
        Late 20th century-early 21'st century -
        Recently there has been huge growth in the service or tertiary sector involving jobs in health care, offices, financial services and retailing.
        Most recently, the quaternary sector has developed with jobs in research, information technology and the media. Most of these jobs have been based in London and the South East. Today London is a world centre for financial services, media, research and creative industries, and it had benefited hugely from globalisation and interconnectivity with the rest of the world;
        
        Infrastructure
        Infrastructure involves transport, services and communications. In recent years, London and the South East has benefited from a number of developments including:
        
        The channel Tunnel (1994)
        
        expansion of airports, such as Stansted, and the construction of new terminals, such as Terminal 5 at Heathrow (2008)
        
        High Speed 1 Eurostar trains starting to operate from London St Pancras (2007).
        
        In the future, there are several planned developments in transport, including Crossrail and the construction of a new airport runway, probably at Heathrow.
        
        Government policy
        Many companies - both UK based and international - have chosen to be in London rather than elsewhere in the UK. Government investment in infrastructure projects such as Crossrail, the regeneration of London's docklands (1989s+) and constructions of the Olympic site (2012) have all promoted the economic growth of the 'south'.
        In 2015, the government announced plans to create a Northern Powerhouse of modern manufacturing industries specialising in science and technology across the major cities of the north, The aim is to redress the North-South economic imbalance, and to attract investment into northern cities and towns. Several transport improvements will support this initiative:
        
        HS2 (High Speed 2) is a £50 billion project to build a new high-speed railway line to connect London with Birmingham and then on to Sheffield, Leeds and Manchester. It may then be extended to Newcastle completion in 2033, is highly controversial as the route passes through several stretches of highly valued countryside and close to many peoples homes.
        
        Electrification of the Tans-Pennine Express Railway between Manchester and York by 2020, reducing journey times by up to 15 minutes and completing the electrified link between Liverpool and Newcastle.
        
        Electrification of the Midland Mainline, between London and Sheffield by 2023.
      - Case study: Salford Quays, Manchester
- - - - What is development?
        
        It can be used to describe the progress of a country as it becomes more economically and technologically advanced.
        
        It can also be applied to improvements in people's quality of life:
        
        Educational opportunities;
        
        Increased incomes;
        
        Human rights;
        
        Healthy living conditions.
        
        Key terms:
        Social development - Improvements in people's quality of life. e.g. literacy, health care and life expectancy
        Economic development - Improvements in wealth. e.g. GNI (Gross National Income) and GDP (Gross Domestic Product).
        Environmental development - Improvements in the quality of the natural world. e.g. air pollution and water quality.
        Sustainable development - Meeting the needs of the present while protecting the needs of those in the future. e.g. the development of renewable energy.
      - How are countries classified?
        
        Countries are classified by organisations such as the WB (World Bank), the UNDP (United Nations Development Program), and the IMF (International Monetary Fund).
        
        A range of economic and social indicators are used to split the world up into groups that are broadly similar.
        
        Key terms:
        AC's (Advanced Countries) - well -developed financial markets, diversified economic structure with rapidly growing service sector. e.g. UK, USA, Japan, Australia.
        EDC's (Emerging and Developing Countries) - Do not share all the characteristics required to be an AC but are not eligible for Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust. e.g. South Africa, India, China, Brazil.
        LIDC's (Low-Income Developing Countries) - Countries eligible for Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust from the IMF. e.g. Nigeria, Bangladesh, Afghanistan