Ch. 12 Self and Social Understanding

Key Concepts

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sense of self (p. 446)

self-handicapping (p. 448)

contingent self-worth (p. 449)

imaginary audience (p. 453)

personal fable (p. 453)

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cyberbullying (p. 453)

identity (p. 454)

gender schema (p. 458)

gender identity (p. 459)

self-socialization (p. 459)

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theory of mind (p. 470)

social cognition (p. 470)

social perspective taking (p.470)

intentionality (p. 470)

recursive thinking (p. 472)

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stereotype (p. 476)

social-cognitive bias (p. 476)

prejudice (p. 476)

autism spectrum disorders (p. 477)

mirror neuron (p. 478)

Tendency to intergrade personal observations and others' input into self-constructed standards for behavior and to choose actions consistent with those standards.

Personal embracement of the self as male, female, or an alternate gender

self-constructed body of beliefs about the traits and behaviors of males or females.

Self-constructed definition of who one is, what things one finds important, what one believes, and what goals one wants to accomplish in life.

Use of digital technologies to harass, threaten, or embarrass another person

Belief held by many adolescents that they are unique beings invulnerable to normal risks and dangers

Belief that one is the center of attention in any social situation.

overall sense of self that is highly dependent on others' opinions

Action that undermines one's own success as a way of protecting self-worth during difficult tasks

Knowledge, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about oneself as a person

Specialized cell in the brain that fires either when the person preforms a particular act or observes another individual performing the same act

Disorders marked by impaired social cognition, social skills, and social interaction, as well as by repetitive behaviors: extreme forms are often associated with significant cognitive and linguistic delays and highly unusual behaviors.

Display of negative attitudes, feelings, and behaviors towards individuals because of their affiliations with a group that is presumed to be inferior to others

Rigid, simplistic, and erroneous characterization of a particular group

Metal shortcut used when thinking about other people or social events.

Thinking about what other people may be thinking about oneself, possibly through multiple iterations.

Engagement in an action congruent with one's purpose or goal.

Imagining what someone else might be thinking or feeling

Awareness that people have an inner, psychological life (thoughts, beliefs, feeling, etc.)

Process of thinking about how other people are likely to think, act, and react and choosing one's own interpersonal behaviors accordingly.

Sense of Self

Social Cognition

sense of self

Factors Influencing self-perceptions

Developmental Trends

Development of sense of self

Early Adolescence

Middle Child hood

Self in Bioecological Context

Gender

Ethnicity

Culture

Enhancing sense of self

Social Cognition

Development of Social Cognition

Selman's Theory of Social Perspective-Taking

Social-Cognitive Bias and Prejudice

Bioecological Framework: Children with Exceptionalities

Fostering Development of Social Cognition

Take-Home Message

sense of self: knowledge, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about oneself

self-concept

Self-perceptions

Who am I?

How good am I as a person?

selfe-esteem

self eorth

Motivates behavior

Influences reactions to events

Helps children organize and understand things that happen to them

Helps them envision future selves

Helps them make choices to reach goals

Expectations of other adults and support they provide

Parental acceptance

Parents who applaud children's abilities and take inabilities in stride are likely to have children with high self-esteem

Parents who punish children for things they do not or cannot do, without also praising them for things done well, are apt to have children with low self-esteem

Need to protect on's own self-worht

Academic performance and school environment

Group membership

Peer acceptance and expectations

school, CLUB, SPORT, SOCIAL MEDIA

may engage in self-handicapping

Children's sense of worth becomes more stable over time

Children increasingly behave in ways that mirror their self-perceptions

As children grow older, their feelings of self-worth depend more on peers' behaviors and opinions

Children become increasingly committed to particular standards

Most youngsters adopt criteria that others use to evaluate their behavior and characteristics

Children construct increasingly abstract, integrated, and multifaceted understandings of who they are

Infancy and Early Childhood

Infancy

recognizing self in mirror

self as distinct, lovable being

Early childhood

autobiographical self (personal history)

language reflects self : I, me, mine

Describe self as physical characteristics, simple psychological traits

Overconfidence, high self-esteem

self described in physical and psychological terms

more able to compare themselves to others

optimistic but also aware of strengths and weaknesses

positive self-esteem

can reflect on how they are perceived by others

imaginary audience

belief in personal fable- unique, invincible

self-esteem drops (especially girls)

Late adolescent

multiple & contradictory self-perceptions

intentional efforts toward identity development-4 patterns

foreclosure

moratorium

identity diffusion

identity achievement

ability to initiate others and appreciation of others' imitation of them

One frame work

Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST)

Children actively interpret the implications of events and relationships for themselves

children encounter both risk factors and protective factors

As they exercise coping skills, they build and rebuild their personal identity

By age 2-1/2 most children know that they are a "boy" or "girl"

In early childhood, children develop gender schemas (what boys and girls are "like") that guide development of self-concept and self-socialization

Infants distinguish male and female faces

Adolescents typically settle on a gender identity, identifying themselves as being male or female

Gender non-conforming children identify with a gender role that is not typical of others with the same chromosomal pattern

Development of ethnic identity begins early

affected by parental beliefs and behaviors

may result in pride and loyalty to group

multiethnic children particularly interested in exploring heritage

discrimination and bias in the environment can lead to negative self-perceptions

Cultures differ in their views of the self

individualistic societies encourage personal confidence, individual desires and goals

collectivist societies emphasize fitting into an esteemed group

pride in own achievement

Pride in group achievements

Provide opportunities for exploration

consider unique needs of girls and boys

communicate respect for ethnic and cultural backgrounds

Cultivate gratitude and hope

Be honest about shortcomings but also provide guidance and support

Focus children's attention on personal improvement rather than comparison to others

Promote academic, social, and physical successes

Offer many chances to develop healthy self-perceptions

Communicate interest in children's lives, well being

Put self-esteem in proper perspective

Understanding others' thoughts, feelings, behaviors

theory of mind

social perspective-taking

Early childhood

Middle childhood

Early adolescences

Infancy

Late adolescence

become aware of intentionality

engage in social referencing-watch another's reaction for cues

others have intentions and act toward goals

they can act to help others achieve goals or alleviate distress

increasing awareness of others' mental states

recognition that mind is distinct from the physical world

learn to infer mental states from behaviors

recognition that people interpret events

understand that people can mask true feelings, thoughts

realize that thoughts and feelings are interrelated

use information about others to tease, outwit, & manipulate

appreciation that people can have mixed feelings & motives

ability to engage in recursive thinking

Teens as "budding psychologists"- deciphering and explaining the motives and actions of others

Leve 0: Egocentric perspective taking

Level 1; Subjective perspective taking

Level 2: Second-person, reciprocal perspective taking

Level 3: Third-person, mutual perspective taking

Level 4: Societal, symbolic perspective taking

Inability to look at a situation from anyone's perspective but one's own

Simplistic realization that people have different thoughts &feelings

Recognition that people occasionally have mixed feelings

Understanding that behaviors & mental states do not always match

Ability to take an outsider's perspective

See advantages of cooperation and trust

Recognition that people are affected by many factors in their environments

Understanding that people are not always aware of why they act as they do

Theory seems to underestimate young children's capabilities

Original theory suggested development is due largely to maturation

Later work suggests personal experience plays a large role

Adults can foster development by encouraging perspective-taking skills just above current level

Preschoolers categorize people into groups

Grade-schoolers more inclusive

Some adolescents show increase in prejudice

favor own group

may respond based on stereotypes

likely environmentally influenced

Certain disabilities affect understanding of others

Research suggests irregularities in mirror neurons play a role

Fragile X syndrome

Autism spectrum disorders

social anxiety, limited theory of mind

poor selfawareness, limited awareness of others' minds, weak social skills

Encourage thinking about others' perspectives

Help children identify nonverbal cues

Talk about psychological phenomena &other people's perspectives in age-appropriate ways

Coach children who face substantial delays

Promote an inclusive setting and work to break down stereotypes and prejudice

Coach children who face substantial delays

Promote an inclusive setting and work to break down stereotypes and prejudice

Help children identify nonverbal cues

Encourage thinking about others' perpectives

Talk about psychological phenomena & other people's perspectives in age- appropriate ways