Ch. 12 Self and Social Understanding
Key Concepts
click to edit
sense of self (p. 446)
self-handicapping (p. 448)
contingent self-worth (p. 449)
imaginary audience (p. 453)
personal fable (p. 453)
click to edit
cyberbullying (p. 453)
identity (p. 454)
gender schema (p. 458)
gender identity (p. 459)
self-socialization (p. 459)
click to edit
theory of mind (p. 470)
social cognition (p. 470)
social perspective taking (p.470)
intentionality (p. 470)
recursive thinking (p. 472)
click to edit
stereotype (p. 476)
social-cognitive bias (p. 476)
prejudice (p. 476)
autism spectrum disorders (p. 477)
mirror neuron (p. 478)
Tendency to intergrade personal observations and others' input into self-constructed standards for behavior and to choose actions consistent with those standards.
Personal embracement of the self as male, female, or an alternate gender
self-constructed body of beliefs about the traits and behaviors of males or females.
Self-constructed definition of who one is, what things one finds important, what one believes, and what goals one wants to accomplish in life.
Use of digital technologies to harass, threaten, or embarrass another person
Belief held by many adolescents that they are unique beings invulnerable to normal risks and dangers
Belief that one is the center of attention in any social situation.
overall sense of self that is highly dependent on others' opinions
Action that undermines one's own success as a way of protecting self-worth during difficult tasks
Knowledge, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about oneself as a person
Specialized cell in the brain that fires either when the person preforms a particular act or observes another individual performing the same act
Disorders marked by impaired social cognition, social skills, and social interaction, as well as by repetitive behaviors: extreme forms are often associated with significant cognitive and linguistic delays and highly unusual behaviors.
Display of negative attitudes, feelings, and behaviors towards individuals because of their affiliations with a group that is presumed to be inferior to others
Rigid, simplistic, and erroneous characterization of a particular group
Metal shortcut used when thinking about other people or social events.
Thinking about what other people may be thinking about oneself, possibly through multiple iterations.
Engagement in an action congruent with one's purpose or goal.
Imagining what someone else might be thinking or feeling
Awareness that people have an inner, psychological life (thoughts, beliefs, feeling, etc.)
Process of thinking about how other people are likely to think, act, and react and choosing one's own interpersonal behaviors accordingly.
Sense of Self
Social Cognition
sense of self
Factors Influencing self-perceptions
Developmental Trends
Development of sense of self
Early Adolescence
Middle Child hood
Self in Bioecological Context
Gender
Ethnicity
Culture
Enhancing sense of self
Social Cognition
Development of Social Cognition
Selman's Theory of Social Perspective-Taking
Social-Cognitive Bias and Prejudice
Bioecological Framework: Children with Exceptionalities
Fostering Development of Social Cognition
Take-Home Message
sense of self: knowledge, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about oneself
self-concept
Self-perceptions
Who am I?
How good am I as a person?
selfe-esteem
self eorth
Motivates behavior
Influences reactions to events
Helps children organize and understand things that happen to them
Helps them envision future selves
Helps them make choices to reach goals
Expectations of other adults and support they provide
Parental acceptance
Parents who applaud children's abilities and take inabilities in stride are likely to have children with high self-esteem
Parents who punish children for things they do not or cannot do, without also praising them for things done well, are apt to have children with low self-esteem
Need to protect on's own self-worht
Academic performance and school environment
Group membership
Peer acceptance and expectations
school, CLUB, SPORT, SOCIAL MEDIA
may engage in self-handicapping
Children's sense of worth becomes more stable over time
Children increasingly behave in ways that mirror their self-perceptions
As children grow older, their feelings of self-worth depend more on peers' behaviors and opinions
Children become increasingly committed to particular standards
Most youngsters adopt criteria that others use to evaluate their behavior and characteristics
Children construct increasingly abstract, integrated, and multifaceted understandings of who they are
Infancy and Early Childhood
Infancy
recognizing self in mirror
self as distinct, lovable being
Early childhood
autobiographical self (personal history)
language reflects self : I, me, mine
Describe self as physical characteristics, simple psychological traits
Overconfidence, high self-esteem
self described in physical and psychological terms
more able to compare themselves to others
optimistic but also aware of strengths and weaknesses
positive self-esteem
can reflect on how they are perceived by others
imaginary audience
belief in personal fable- unique, invincible
self-esteem drops (especially girls)
Late adolescent
multiple & contradictory self-perceptions
intentional efforts toward identity development-4 patterns
foreclosure
moratorium
identity diffusion
identity achievement
ability to initiate others and appreciation of others' imitation of them
One frame work
Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST)
Children actively interpret the implications of events and relationships for themselves
children encounter both risk factors and protective factors
As they exercise coping skills, they build and rebuild their personal identity
By age 2-1/2 most children know that they are a "boy" or "girl"
In early childhood, children develop gender schemas (what boys and girls are "like") that guide development of self-concept and self-socialization
Infants distinguish male and female faces
Adolescents typically settle on a gender identity, identifying themselves as being male or female
Gender non-conforming children identify with a gender role that is not typical of others with the same chromosomal pattern
Development of ethnic identity begins early
affected by parental beliefs and behaviors
may result in pride and loyalty to group
multiethnic children particularly interested in exploring heritage
discrimination and bias in the environment can lead to negative self-perceptions
Cultures differ in their views of the self
individualistic societies encourage personal confidence, individual desires and goals
collectivist societies emphasize fitting into an esteemed group
pride in own achievement
Pride in group achievements
Provide opportunities for exploration
consider unique needs of girls and boys
communicate respect for ethnic and cultural backgrounds
Cultivate gratitude and hope
Be honest about shortcomings but also provide guidance and support
Focus children's attention on personal improvement rather than comparison to others
Promote academic, social, and physical successes
Offer many chances to develop healthy self-perceptions
Communicate interest in children's lives, well being
Put self-esteem in proper perspective
Understanding others' thoughts, feelings, behaviors
theory of mind
social perspective-taking
Early childhood
Middle childhood
Early adolescences
Infancy
Late adolescence
become aware of intentionality
engage in social referencing-watch another's reaction for cues
others have intentions and act toward goals
they can act to help others achieve goals or alleviate distress
increasing awareness of others' mental states
recognition that mind is distinct from the physical world
learn to infer mental states from behaviors
recognition that people interpret events
understand that people can mask true feelings, thoughts
realize that thoughts and feelings are interrelated
use information about others to tease, outwit, & manipulate
appreciation that people can have mixed feelings & motives
ability to engage in recursive thinking
Teens as "budding psychologists"- deciphering and explaining the motives and actions of others
Leve 0: Egocentric perspective taking
Level 1; Subjective perspective taking
Level 2: Second-person, reciprocal perspective taking
Level 3: Third-person, mutual perspective taking
Level 4: Societal, symbolic perspective taking
Inability to look at a situation from anyone's perspective but one's own
Simplistic realization that people have different thoughts &feelings
Recognition that people occasionally have mixed feelings
Understanding that behaviors & mental states do not always match
Ability to take an outsider's perspective
See advantages of cooperation and trust
Recognition that people are affected by many factors in their environments
Understanding that people are not always aware of why they act as they do
Theory seems to underestimate young children's capabilities
Original theory suggested development is due largely to maturation
Later work suggests personal experience plays a large role
Adults can foster development by encouraging perspective-taking skills just above current level
Preschoolers categorize people into groups
Grade-schoolers more inclusive
Some adolescents show increase in prejudice
favor own group
may respond based on stereotypes
likely environmentally influenced
Certain disabilities affect understanding of others
Research suggests irregularities in mirror neurons play a role
Fragile X syndrome
Autism spectrum disorders
social anxiety, limited theory of mind
poor selfawareness, limited awareness of others' minds, weak social skills
Encourage thinking about others' perspectives
Help children identify nonverbal cues
Talk about psychological phenomena &other people's perspectives in age-appropriate ways
Coach children who face substantial delays
Promote an inclusive setting and work to break down stereotypes and prejudice
Coach children who face substantial delays
Promote an inclusive setting and work to break down stereotypes and prejudice
Help children identify nonverbal cues
Encourage thinking about others' perpectives
Talk about psychological phenomena & other people's perspectives in age- appropriate ways