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PE (Paper 1, Paper 2) - Coggle Diagram
PE
Paper 1
Fitness and body systems
Anatomy and Physiology
Skeletal System
Functions
Mineral storage
- bones store minerals which help with bone strength so you are less likely to break a bone
Protection
- protect vital organs which allows you to perform well in sport without fear of serious injury
Movement
- muscles are attached to bones by tendons which is essential for sport and joints are where two or more bones meet
Making blood cells
- bones contain bone marrow which produces red and white blood cells which are important during exercise and injury
Types of bones
Long bones
- used for larger movements and where blood cells are made e.g. femur, humerus and tibia
Short bones
- designed to take a lot of weight and absorb the stress of activities e.g. carpals and tarsals
Flat bones
- protect internal organs and allows muscle attachment e.g. cranium, scapula, ribs and pelvis
Irregular bones
- provides protection and support within the body e.g. patella and vertebral column
Joint Movement
Dorsiflex
- flexing your toes
Plantarflex
- pointing your toes, extension of the ankle
Circumduction
- the ability of a limb to be moved in circles e.g. bowling a cricket ball
Rotation
- turning or rotational movement of a limb or body part
Abduction
- moving a limb away from the centre line of the body
Adduction
- moving a limb towards the centre line of the body
Flexion
- bending or flexing a limb, closing a joint
Extension
- straightening or extending a limb, opening a joint
Types of joints
Hinge joint
- allows flexion and extension with only a small amount of rotation e.g. elbow and knee
Pivot join
t - allows only rotation e.g. neck
Ball and socket
- allows the greatest range of movement e.g. shoulder and hip
Condyloid joint
- allows movement in all directions and rotations e.g. wrist and feet
Connective tissues
Ligaments
- hold bones together and are very strong
Tendons
- attach muscles to bones or to other muscles
Cartilage
- forms a cushion between bones to stop rubbing
Muscular System
Muscle fibre types
Type IIa
- fast twitch - works anaerobically, high speed and force of contractions and good strength and speed endurance e.g. 800m
Type IIx
- fast twitch - works anaerobically, high speed and force of contractions but a low aerobic capacity and very low fatigue resistance e.g. 100m
Type I
- slow-twitch - works aerobically, high fatigue resistance but low speed and force or contractions e.g. 10,000m and marathons
Types of muscles
Voluntary muscle
- attach to bones via tendons and they are under conscious control
Involuntary muscle
- located in the digestive system and blood vessels and you have no conscious control
Cardiac muscle
- found just in the heart, an involuntary muscle
Antagonistic muscles
- a pair of muscles that work together to produce movement, the agonist muscle is the one contracting and the antagonist muscle is the one relaxing e.g. bicep and tricep, hamstring and quadriceps, hip flexors and gluteals
Cardiovascular system
Functions
Transport
- carries oxygen and nutrients, blood delivers what the body needs to work and removes waste products such as lactic acid and CO2 and it's vital during physical activity as requirements increase during exercise
Clotting
- platelets in the blood form clots which seal open wounds which protects the body from infection and excessive bleeding and the risk of cuts increase in physical activity so clotting reduces risk of major injury
Temperature regulation
- during physical activity the body generates more heat so when the body is hot vasodilation takes place which increases blood flow to skin where it is cool which prevents overheating which can cause headaches, confusion and loss of consciousness
Blood
Components of blood
White blood cells
- fight against disease
Platelets
- helps stop bleeding
Red blood cells
- carry oxygen and transport it around the body
Plasma
- transports hormones and nutrients around the body and blood would not flow and move around the body without it
Blood vessels
Capillaries
- blood becomes deoxygenated, looks like mesh and narrow and one cell thick so gas can diffuse
Veins
- carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart with valves to stop blood flowing the wrong way, has thinner walls with a large lumen and the blood pressure is low
Arteries
- carries oxygenated blood away from the heart, blood pressure increases with exercise and it has thick muscular walls and small lumen and it contracts to push blood along
The route through the heart
Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the vena cava
The right atrium contracts, pushing the blood through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle
The right ventricle contracts pushing the blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery which carries the blood to the lungs
Gases are exchanged in the lungs and the blood is oxygenated
Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium from the pulmonary vein
The left atrium contracts, pushing the blood through the mitral valve into the left atrium
The left ventricle contracts pushing the blood through the aortic valve into the aorta which transports the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body and when the muscles have used the oxygen in the blood it becomes deoxygenated again
Respiratory system
Structure
Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and the diaphragm and external intercoastal muscles help the air move
Air is made up of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and a few other gases
Mechanics of breathing
Inhalation
- the
diaphragm
and
intercoastal
muscles
contract
and the diaphragm flattens and pulls the bottom of the lungs down, the intercostal muscles contract to move the ribcage upwards and expand the chest cavity which
decreases the air pressure inside the lungs
drawing air in
Exhalation
- the
diaphragm
and
intercostal muscles relax
and the diaphragm moves back up into a dome shape, the intercoastal muscles relax moving the ribcage down and shrinking the chest cavity which
increases the air pressure inside the lungs
forcing air out the same way it came up
Gaseous exchange
Gaseous exchange
- once the alveoli in the lungs have filled with air gaseous exchange takes place and oxygen moves from the air in the alveoli into the blood in the capillaries whilst carbon dioxide moves the other way
During exercise
-
muscles use more oxygen
so the blood returning from the muscles has a lower than normal concentration of oxygen in it and the difference between the concentration of oxygen in the blood and in the air in the alveoli is greater so
more oxygen diffuses into the blood and at the same time more carbon dioxide is created in the muscle
and the higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and a greater difference between this and the concentration in the alveoli so
more carbon dioxide is diffused in the air in the alveoli
, this means that a
greater number of gaseous exchange takes place during exercise
Physical Training
Components of fitness
Steps to successful fitness testing
Health, Fitness, Exercise and Performance
Exercise
- a form of physical activity done to maintain or improve health and fitness
Performance
- the action of performing a task
Fitness
- the ability to meet the demands of the environment
Health
- a state of complete emotional, physical and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease infirmity
Choosing the right test.
Testing accurately and reliably.
Analysing and giving feedback.
Agility
- a measure of how quickly you can change the position of your body while keeping your entire body under control e.g. football (Illinois agility test)
Balance
- your ability to keep your body steady both when in a static position and when moving e.g. gymnastics (stork stand test)
Body Composition
- a measure of the percentage of fat, muscle, bone, water and vital organs that make up your body
Cardiovascular Endurance
- a measure of how efficiently your body can deliver oxygen and nutrients to your working muscles during exercise and also carry away waste products e.g. endurance sports (12-minutes cooper run)
Coordination
- the ability to move two or more body parts together accurately and smoothly e.g. tennis (wall toss test)
Flexibility
- the ability of your joints to move through their full range of movement e.g. swimmers (sit and reach test)
Muscular Endurance
- a measure of the length of time your voluntary muscles can contract without getting tired e.g. rowing (Harvard step test)
Power
- the ability to combine strength with speed to perform a strong muscular contraction very quickly e.g. long jump (vertical jump)
Reaction Time
- the amount of time it takes you to respond to a stimulus e.g. 100m sprint (ruler drop test)
Speed
- the rate at which your body or part of your body is able to perform a movement e.g. 100m sprint (30m sprint)
Strength
- the amount of force a muscle can generate when it contracts to overcome resistance e.g. weightlifting (hand grip dynamometer)
Fitness Tests
Continuous
- exercising at a steady constant rate, improves cardiovascular and muscular endurance.
Fartlek
- changes in the intensity of the exercises over different intervals, change on speed or terrain, improves cardiovascular and muscular endurance and speed
Interval
- fixed pattern of periods of high-intensity exercise and either low-intensity or rest, improves cardiovascular endurance, anaerobic fitness and speed
Weight/Resistance
- using you muscles against resistance with weights, elastic ropes or your body weight, improves strength, power and muscular endurance
Circuit
- 6-10 stations where you do specific exercises for a set amount of time, improves cardiovascular and muscular endurance, aerobic and anaerobic fitness, strength, power and speed
Plyometric
- high impact exercises that teach muscles to perform there maximum contractions, improves power and anaerobic fitness
Principles of training
SPORI
S
- specificity - training should be matched to the requirements of the activity that the performer is involved it
R
- reversibility - any fitness improvement caused by training will gradually reverse and be lost when you stop training
P
- progressive overload - working harder than normal whilst gradually and sensibly increasing the intensity of the training
O
- overtraining - when you train to hard and o not give your body enough time to rest and recover between sessions
I
- individual needs - training sessions need to be designed to meet the needs of the individual
FITT
T
- time - how long you should exercise
T
- type - what exercises and methods you should use
I
- intensity - how hard you should exercise
F
- frequency - how often you should exercise
Thresholds of training
Maximum heart rate
- MHR = 220 - age
Aerobic target zone
- 60% - 80% of maximum heat rate
Anaerobic target zone
- 80% - 90% of maximum heart rate
MHR x 0.percentage = lower or higher threshold
Long term effects of exercise
Increase bone density
- bones adapt under stress from exercise and become thicker and heavier
Increased strength of ligaments and tendons
- they are stretched during exercise and adapt by becoming thicker and stronger to prevent tearing
Muscle hypertrophy
- when a muscle is trained small tears are created and as they heal they become thicker and muscles increase in size and strength
Cardiac hypertrophy
- regular exercise increases the heart size and makes it stronger meaning it can pump more blood, stroke volume x heart rate = cardiac output
Increase in the elasticity of veins and arteries
- the more elastic the veins and arteries the faster they can deliver oxygen to the working muscles
Increase in the number of red blood cells
- more red blood cells means they can carry more oxygen
Capillarisation and an increase in the number of alveoli
- increased number of capillaries wrapped around the alveoli means a greater level of gaseous exchange
Increased strength of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles
- leads to an increase in tidal volume and vital capacity meaning more oxygen can be brought into the body
Warm ups and Cool downs
Warm-ups
- raise your pulse, stretching and mobility, sport-specific drills and mental preparation
Cool downs
- gradually reducing intensity, removing waste products, blood pooling, stretching
Sporting injuries
Concussion
- the sudden but short live loss of mental function that occurs after a blow or other injury to the head, could be masking something more serious such as bleeding or swelling of the brain. Symptoms: headaches, dizziness, nausea, blurry vision
Abrasions
- a layer of the skin is 'rubbed off' Symptoms: skin will be red and raw and feel hot. Treatment: cleaned and covered to prevent infection
Sprain
- overstretching the ligaments. Symptoms: pain, swelling, bruising, unable to move joint. Treatment: RICE
Fracture
- a broken bone, open fracture where the bone has penetrated the skin or a closed fracture where the bone hasn't penetrated the skin. Symptoms: bruising, swelling, deformity, pain
Torn Cartilage
- a connective tissue found throughout the body that gets torn. Symptoms: pain, swelling, stiffness, decreased range of movement. Treatment: RICE
Tennis/Golfers elbow
- the muscles and tendons in the wrist are overused and pain occurs in the upper arm. Treatment: RICE
Soft tissue injuries
- injuries to the muscles, ligaments and tendons or a strain where the muscular tendon is over stretched and/or tears. Symptoms: pain, swelling, bruising. Treatment: RICE
Dislocation
- occurs at a joint when it pops out of its socket. Symptoms: deformity, swelling, bruising, pain
RICE
I
- apply an ice pack to the injured area
C
- compression, apply firm pressure to the injured area
R
- rest the injured area
E
- elevation, raise the injured area above the level of the heart
Performance Enhancing Drugs
Blood Doping
- injecting oxygenated blood, mainly for endurance athletes.
Negatives:
high risk of kidney failure and blood infections and a risk of blood clotting and allergic reactions.
Positives:
more oxygen is transported by the blood so you can train for longer
Peptide Hormones
- known as EPO, can be artificially manufactured and injected into the body to increase the oxygen-carrying capacity.
Negatives:
blood becomes thicker which increases the risk of blood clotting.
Positives:
improving aerobic capacity so you can perform longer
Anabolic steroids
- a hormone that resembles testosterone prompting the growth of muscles.
Negatives:
increased risk of diseases, hair loss and higher blood pressure, can cause aggressive behaviour and facial hair.
Positives:
faster recovery and increased muscle mass proving performance in sports
Beta Blockers
- blocks the effect of adrenaline and reduces heart rate.
Negatives:
lowers heart rate too much can be dangerous.
Positives:
reduces anxiety and you stay calm and makes performance hands steadier
Growth Hormones
- known as GH, stimulates the growth of muscles, cartilage and bones.
Negatives:
increased risk of muscle and joint pain, risk of fluid retention which causes swelling.
Positives:
increase in muscle size and mass and metabolic rate and speeds up recovery
Stimulants
- acts directly to the nervous system speeding up parts of the brain and body.
Negatives:
increased aggression, heart rate and blood pressure and can be addictive.
Positives:
increased alertness and increase in energy
Narcotic agents
- like painkillers, they relieve pain.
Negatives:
effects concentration and coordination, increased pain threshold which can cause further injury and it can be addictive.
Positives:
performers can compete injured or in pain
Diuretics
- increases the volume of urine removed from the body.
Negatives:
increases the risk of dehydration, heart failure and muscle cramp.
Positives:
increased weight loss and makes it difficult to detect other banned substances as the urine passes out of the body quickly
Risks
- health risks, potential life ban, lose career, lose sponsorship
Paper 2
Health and Performance
Health, Fitness and Well-being
Physical, Emotional and Social well-being
Emotional health
- you feel content and confident in yourself, you are able to manage your emotions and cope with challenges, you do not have too much stress or anxiety and your not suffering from any mental illnesses
Social health
- you have friends and you believe you have some worth in society and you have food clothing and shelter
Well-being
- the state of being comfortable, healthy, or happy
Physical health
- your bodies organs and systems are working well and you are not suffering from any illnesses, diseases or injuries and you are strong and fit enough to easily do everyday activities
Sedentary Lifestyle
Lifestyle choices
Positive effects of being fit
- maintain optimum weight,
reduce risk of diseases
such as Type 2 diabetes and heart disease,
feel happier
and more confident, fall asleep faster and a better quality of sleep and you
recover from exercise
, illness and injury more
quickly
Negative effects or being fit
- can become
addicted to exercise
which leads to overtraining, risk of
body dysmorphia
, overtraining can
damage joints and cause injuries
Consequences
can cause obesity or you become overweight or overfat
depression
coronary heart disease
diabetes
high blood pressure or hypertension
increased risk of osteoporosis
loss of muscle tone and poor posture
Diet and Nutrition
Balanced diet
contains the best ratio of nutrients to match your lifestyle and prevent health problems and injury and to speed up recover following exercise
Carbohydrates
(macronutrient) - the main source of energy for your muscles during exercise, some get used straight away and the rest gets stored in the liver and muscle.
Simple - sugar
.
Complex - rice, bread, pasta, potatoes
Protein
(macronutrient) - helps the body grow and repair itself as well as build and repair muscles, they are made from molecules called amino acids and can provide backup energy e.g.
meat, fish, eggs and beans
Fats
(macronutrient) - made from molecules called fatty acid, keep the body warm and protect organs and provide energy and are needed to help the body use vitamins.
Saturated fats (solid a room temp) - butter, meat, cheese. Unsaturated fats (liquid at room temp and are better for us) - cooking oils
Vitamins
(micronutrient) - help bones and tissues grow and heal e.g.
milk, cheese, eggs, meat, vegetables, fruit, nuts, cereal
. Vitamin A - needed for growth and vision. Vitamin D - needed for strong bones to help prevent injury
Minerals
(micronutrient) - needed for healthy bones and teeth and to build other tissues, Calcium - needed for strong bones and teeth but also for muscle contraction e.g.
milk, cheese, cereal
. Iron - used to make red blood cells e.g.
meat, dark green vegetables
Water
- main components of the cells in our bodies, transports nutrients and electrolytes around the body and needed for rehydration after exercise
Fibre
- aids digestion and reduce cholesterol e.g.
wholegrain cereals, rice, oats, fruit and veg
Carbohydrate Loading
- the way of gaining more energy by eating a heavy carb meal the night before
Energy balance
- for body weight to remain constant energy input is equal to expenditure known as calorie counting, you must ensure the calories you eat are equal to the calories you burn
Factors affecting optimum weight
Gender
- men's optimum weight tends to be higher than women because they have a larger skeleton and a greater muscle mass
Height
- the taller you are the greater your optimum weight because taller people have larger skeletons and healthy bones are dense and heavy
Muscle Girth
- circumference of muscle so the bigger your muscle girth the heavier your muscles and stronger they are, men tend to have greater muscle girth than women
Bone Structure
- bigger bones weigh more than smaller bones and greater bone density the heavier they become which is affected by calcium and weight bearing exercises
Sports Psychology
Sporting behaviour
Sportsmanship
- the qualities of fairness, following the rules and being gracious in defeat or victory e.g. shaking hands, kicking the ball out of play if a member of the other team is injured
Gamesmanship
- bending the rules or laws of a sport without breaking them e.g time wasting
Deviant behaviour
- behaviour that goes against the moral value or rules of a sport e.g deliberately fouling or being violent. Players do it because of pressure, money, fame, success or sponsorship but the consequences of it are fines, ban, loss of contract or sponsor, media ridicule or there reputation is damaged
Commercialisation
Commercialisation
- the act of making something available for purchase with the aim of making a profit e.g. media, TV
Sport
- advantages are that more money is invested, increase in grassroots participation and more competitions are available but some disadvantages are that changes are made to the rules, overexposure can lead to boredom and minor sports are overlooked
Player/Coach
- advantages are that players are paid more and better coaching and a higher standard is created but some disadvantages are that there is an increased pressure to do well, private life becomes public and there is pressure to get and keep sponsors
Spectator
- advantages are that it is easier to watch events with commentary and analysis and a better experience with more watching opportunities but some disadvantages are that most people stay at home to watch and its expensive to get tickets to big matches
Sponsor
- advantages are that they gat a wide audience range, positive association winners and an increased profit for companies but some disadvantages are that it could a potential devalue to the product or they promote an inappropriate product
Participation rates
Gender
- fewer women participate regularly in sport than men, women's sport have a lower profile than men as they get fewer media coverage
Ethnicity
- one of the main reasons why BME communities have lower rates of participation is the lack of BME role models involved in leading and organising sport.
Age
- older people take part in less sport because they might not have the confidence, they experience loss in mobility and flexibility and find it harder to recover from injuries so they lose confidence
Disability
- people with disabilities take part in fewer sports because they might have fewer opportunities and facilities, less media coverage and fewer role models
Socio-economic
- more sports cost more money so people who are in the working class would get less of an opportunity than upper-class people because of the expenses and funding
Mental Preparation
Psychological warm-up
- when a performer gets mentally ready to give their very best, ensures all their attention is totally focused on the performance, helps them manage their nerves
Mental Preparation
- when a performer thinks and visualises a successful performance before they carry it out, research has shown effective mental preparation before performance can be highly effective
Mental Rehearsal
- when a performer practises the skill in their head before actually performing it, they may act out the movement
Feedback
Intrinsic
- information a performer receives about their performance that comes from within and is linked to how the movement feels
Extrinsic
- information a performer receives about there performance from a coach or another performer
Concurrent
- information a performer receives about their performance during the activity
Terminal
- information a performer receives about their performance after the activity has been completed
Guidance
Verbal
- information given to a performer to help them develop that they can hear, an advantages is that its useful for high level performers but a disadvantage is difficult for beginners to comprehend
Visual
- information given to performers to help them develop that they can see, an advantage is that it is useful for all levels of performers, especially good for young and inexperience performers
Manual
- information given to a performer to help them develop that involves them being physically moved into position, an advantage is that it is good for complex beginners but a disadvantage is that a movement can feel different when someone else is moving your body for you
Mechanical
- information given to a performer to help them develop that involves equipment to assist in the learning process, an advantage is that it is good for potentially dangerous skills but a disadvantage is that the performer may not think they are actually performing themselves
Target
Goal setting
- the process of setting down targets that a performer will aim to accomplish and is linked closely to motivation, purpose and focus, so they are more likely to improve
SMART Targets
S
pecific – state exactly what will need to be done
M
easurable – clear what success will look like
A
chievable – know it is possible
R
ealistic – know it is practical
T
ime-bound – state when it will be achieved
Practise Structures
Fixed
- repeatedly practising the whole skill within a training skill e.g. tennis serve
Massed
- practise that occurs without breaks between attempts e.g. penalty or drop shot in badminton
Distributed
- intervals between skill practise in a training session for rest or mental rehearsal e.g. game scenario in hockey or rugby
Variable
- a training session that include frequent changes of task so that the skill can be repeated in different situation e.g. team sports conditioned
Skill
Low organisation
- a basic skill that can be broken down easily into different phases so each part can be practised separately e.g. swimming or gymnastic rountine
Complex
- a skill requiring a lot of attention and concentration e.g. tennis serve or somersault
Closed
- performed in an unpredictable environment where the performer has to react and adjust to the changing nature of the situation e.g. football tackle or a block in volleyball
Open
- performed in a predictable environment e.g. golf serve or sprint start
Basic
- a simple skill requiring little concentration to execute e.g. shot put or netball pass
High organisation
- a skill that cannot be broken down easily and practised separately because the phases of the skill are closely linked e.g. golf swing or cycling