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1. ENGLISH GRAMMAR: WORDS (1 of 2), writing tips: (It's a big…

- - - - mnemonic:
        FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
    - - both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, rather...or, whether...or
    - - LOCATION
        
        where, whereas, wherever
      - TIME
        
        after, as soon as, before, now, now that, till, until, when, whenever, while
      - MANNER
        
        as if, as though, how, however
      - COMPARISON
        
        as much as, rather than, than, whereas, whether
      - CONDITION
        
        as long as, as soon as, assuming that, either, even if, if, in case, in the event that, once, only if, provided, provided that, providing, supposing, that, unless
      - CONTRAST / CONCESSION
        
        although, even though, though, whereas
      - REASON / PURPOSE
        
        as, because, in order (to), since, so that
      - RELATIVE ADJECTIVES
        
        when, whenever, where, wherever, why
      - types:
      - RELATIVE PRONOUNS
        
        that, which, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose
- - - - types:
        
        INDEFINITE
        function:
        • indicate noun is not known to the listener
        characteristics:
        • can only be used with singular nouns
        (A revolution)
        
        a, an
        A with consonant sound or a consonant letter
        (A car)
        AN with vowel sound or a vowel letter
        (AN hour)
        
        DEFINITE
        function:
        • indicates a specific noun is known
        to both the speaker & listener
        characteristics:
        • can be used with singular and plural nouns
        
        the
    - - this, that, these, those
    - - types:
        
        POSSESSIVE DETERMINERS
        (aka Determiner Possessive Pronouns)
        
        my, your, his, her, its, our, their
        
        POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
        (aka Absolute Possessive Pronoun)
        
        mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
        
        POSSESSIVE PROPER NOUNS
        
        ___’s
        (Mary’S cat)
    - - all, any, both, each, either, enough, every, few, little, many, most, much, neither, no, several
        note: this is an incomplete list
      - used with both countable and uncountable nouns
        a bit of, a great deal of, a load of, a lot of, all of, a pierce of, any, either of, enough, not enough, more than enough, hardly any, loads of, lots of, more, most of, neither of, none of, part of, plenty of, some of, tons of,
      - only used with uncountable nouns
        a little, a (small) amount of, both, less, much, so much, too much the least
      - only used with countable nouns
        a couple of, a few, a (small) number of, both of, dozens of, many, so many, too many, several, the fewest, the majority of
- - - - relative position
        
        POSTPOSITIVE ADJECTIVES
        characteristics:
        • come immediately after the noun, often as an expression
        (Governor General)
        (accounts payable)
        • obligatory when an adjective modifies a pronoun
        (those responsible)
        • often accompany attributive and superlative adjectives
        (the shortest route possible)
        
        ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES
        characteristics:
        • part of a noun phrase
        • come before the noun
        • more than one can modify the same noun
        (’m looking for a small, good-tempered dog.)
        
        PREDICATE ADJECTIVES
        characteristics:
        • part of a verb phrase
        • come after the linking verb
        (My new dog is small and good-tempered.)
        (My dog smells bad.)
      - degrees of comparison
        
        EQUATIVES
        
        SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVE
        
        function:
        • indicate the quality or quantity is of the lowest or highest degree possible
        characteristics:
        • one-syllable adjectives receive the suffix -est (-st if they end in e).
        (The coolest gal.)
        (The wisest man.)
        irregular: (The best result.)
        • If an adjective ends in a vowel + consonant, double the final consonant and add –est
        (A thinner woman.)
        • two-syllable adjectives that end in y receive the suffix -iest.
        (The messiest desk.)
        • multi-syllable adjectives receive the word most.
        (The most mischievous cat.)
        
        COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE
        function:
        • compare two or more things
        characteristics:
        • most one-syllable adjectives are formed by adding the suffix -er, or just -r if the adjective ends with an -e.
        (A cooler gal.)
        (A wise man.)
        irregular: (A better result.)
        • If an adjective ends in a vowel + consonant, double the final consonant and add –er
        (A thinner woman.)
        • for two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, replace -y with -ier.
        (A messier desk.)
        • for multi-syllable adjectives, add the word more.
        (A more mischievous cat.)
        
        ABSOLUTE ADJECTIVE
        (aka: Positive Adjective)
        
        function:
        • adjective base form
        • no comparison made
        (A cool gal.)
        (A messy desk.)
        (A mischievous cat.)
        (A thin woman.)
        irregular: (A good result.)
- - - - above, across, along, among, amongst (UK) around, astride, at, away, behind, below, beside, between, by, down, from, into, inside, off, on, on to (UK), onto (US), out, over, near, over, past, to, through, thru (US), touching, toward (US), towards (UK), under, underneath, up, upon
    - - assuming, barring, concerning, considering, counting, during, excepting, excluding, following, given, including, notwithstanding, provided, regarding, respected, saving
    - - about, by, consequently, for, from, hence, of, pending, regarding, respecting, notwithstanding, since, through, under, via, with
        
        (Are you going to the prom with Stan?)
        (She found the pot of gold.)
        ? The giftwas for a close friend.
    - - aboard, above, across, against, alongside, amid, amidst, among, amongst (UK), around, astride, at, atop, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, by, from, gone (UK), in, inside, into, opposite, on, outside, over, near, next to, towards (UK), through, throughout, to, under, underneath
    - - ago, after, around, at, before, by, circa, in, during, for, from, on, past, since, till, to, until
    - - ago, after, as, at, before, by, in, during, for, from, like, on, past, per, since, till, to, until, with, within, without
      - She always eats her lunch with a methodical
        thoroughness.
- - - - ANIMATE
        
        VS
        
        INANIMATE
      - PROPER
        
        VS
        
        COMMON
      - CONCRETE
        
        VS
        
        ABSTRACT
      - SINGULAR
        
        VS
        
        PLURAL
      - REGULAR
        
        VS
        
        IRREGULAR
      - NONCOUNT
        
        VS
        
        COUNT
        
        test:
        • MANY, FEWER, A, AN, THE can go in front
        (We have many visitors.)
        (We have fewer visitors than before.)
        • (We have a visitor.)
        
        test:
        • MUCH or LESS can go in front
        (We haven't much time.)
        (We have less time time.)
- - - - LINKING VERBS
        (aka: Copular Verb)
        function:
        • indicate condition / state of being
        •connect/express relationship between the subject/(pro)noun and additional information about the subject (adjective or predicate noun)
        characteristics:
        • can be followed by an adjective
        • some linking verbs also behave like action or helping (aka auxiliary) verbs
        
        test:
        • can substitute verb with [=]
        (You ~~are~~ [=] bored.)
        • can substitute a form of [be]
        (The hotel ~~became~~ [was] dirty)
        • can substitute some form of [seem]
        (The hotel ~~became~~ [seems] dirty)
        
        notes:
        • 12 verbs which are always linking:
        am, are, be, been, being, is, was, were,
        had, has, have
        become, been, seem
        are being, had been, has been, have been, might have been
        
        notes:
        • verbs which are both linking and action verbs
        can be, could be,
        did, do, does,
        may, might, must, will, would
        feel, look, smell, sound, taste,
        appear, grow, prove, remain, shall, should stay, turn,
      - ACTION VERBS
        function:
        • indicate action
        characteristics:
        • can be followed by an adverb
        • some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.
        
        types:
        
        TRANSITIVE
        function:
        • act upon an object noun
        (a person or thing)
        
        test:
        if a verb, in the form given...
        (1a) What did you [x]?
        (1b) You [x] something.
        (2a) Who did you [x]?
        (2b) You [x] someone.
        (3) the verb acts upon an object
        
        fails test
        
        (She quickly [got] indignant.)
        Passes criteria (1a) What did you [get]?
        Passes criteria (2a) You [got] something.
        But...
        indignant isn't an object to be acted upon.
        indignant is an adjective describing the subject SHE.
        
        (Maria was [watching] her favorite soap opera.)
        Passes criteria (1a) What did you [watch]?
        Passes criteria (2a) You [watched] something.
        But...
        The unit begins with the pronoun Her...and the adjective favorite,
        is not an object, it's a 2nd subject (her favorite soap opera).
        
        passes test
        
        (Adam might [withdraw] his resignation.)
        Passes criteria (1a) What did you [withdraw]?
        Passes criteria (2a) You [withdrew] something?
        Passes criteria (3) [withdraw/ withdrew] refer to an object.
        resignation is a noun, a thing, so it can be an object.
        resignation is receiving the action of being WITHDRAWN.
        (I ate dinner.)
        
        INTRANSITIVE
        function:
        • doesn't act upon something
        
        test:
        1a) He [x].
        
        I ATE.
      - PHRASAL VERBS
        characteristics:
        • can substitute a single verb to replace
        the verb + particle
        (She ~~pointed out~~ [showed] the truth to us.)
        (She [pointed out] the truth to us.)
        (She [showed] the truth to us.) ↵
        • you can move the particle away
        from the verb
        (She looked up the answer [up].)
        • the following particles are never after their verb: me, you, him, her, it, us, them