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Theory and Methods - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Closed or Pre-Coded Questions
        
        A set of answers is provided from which the respondent can choose one, so the possible responses are limited
        
        Produces quantitative data
        
        Advantages
        
        Easy to convert statistical analysis; good for comparing the responses of multiple people
        
        Easy and quick to answer
        
        Answers won't be difficult to understand
        
        Disadvantages
        
        Limited possible responses may force the respondent into an answer they don't necessarily want to give
        
        Can make the respondent frustrated as they are unable to adequately express their opinion
        
        Don't often lead to a deeper understanding of the topic in question for the person posing the question
      - Scaled Questions
        
        A form of closed-ended question
        
        The question displays a scale of answer options from any range (e.g. 1-10; strongly agree - strongly disagree)
        
        The respondent selects the possible answer that most accurately represents their response
        
        If there are 5 options, respondent might choose the middle one to avoid making a decision
        
        Even numbers eliminate a middle option, pushing the respondent into making a decision
      - Open questions
        
        Does not provide respondents with pre determined set of answer choices
        
        Respondents provide answers in their own words
        
        Produces qualitative data
        
        Difficult to analyse data
        
        Favoured by Interepretivists
    - - A list of pre-set questions to which the participants are asked to answer
      - Self-completion surveys
        
        Designed to be completed by the participant without the assistance of an interviewer
      - Postal questionnaire
        
        Paper questionnaires are sent by post to potential participants; self-completed; large sample, more representation, easy to generalise; response rate is low
      - Advantages
        
        Inexpensive; Practical; Quick; Scalable; Comparable; Easy visualisation; Offers actionable data; Respondent anomity; No influence from interview (no Hawthorne Effect)
      - Disadvantages
        
        Misunderstanding of question; Lack of personalisation; Survey fatigue; Some questions may be left unanswered
  - - - Semi-structured interview
      - Unstructured Interview
      - Group interview
      - Focus group
    - - Respondent-led; respondent can express and elaborate on their views fully
      - Flexibility; researcher can change questions to adapt to their relevance and importance to the conversation
      - Rapport and empathy encourages openness
      - Interviewer can ensure that the respondent understands the question and topic at hand, and can rephrase the questions for better understanding
    - - Heavy interviewer involvement means that there is the possibility of interviewer effect; damaging the validity of the data
      - The characteristics of the interviewer might affect the respondent's responses
      - Time-consuming, and so hard to generalise data because a large sample is difficult
      - Hard to quantify data to compare and create trends
      - Some researchers lack interpersonal skills
      - Questions might become to personal or offend the respondent
  - - - Can collect data that is more in-depth and in greater detail
      - Allows for study through the use of appropriate research methods
      - Can produce findings that can be tested by other research
    - - Illustrative case studies
      - Exploratory case studies
      - Cumulative case studies
      - Critical instance case studies
    - - Generalisations are hard to bed made as findings may only apply to the specific case
      - Deep involvement of researcher may lead to biased data
  - - - Effective in identifying patterns of change over time
      - Highly flexible
      - High validity through recording
    - - Very very very time-consuming
      - Very expensive
      - Sample attrition
      - Respondents may change views over time to fit what they think the observer wants (Hawthorne Effect)
  - - - Statistical data easy to quantify to make comparisons and draw trends
      - Does not involve people as respondents and so avoids ethical issues and Hawthorne Effect
      - Inexpensive
      - High in reliability as it follows systematic procedures that can be replicated
      - Highly flexible; can be done anywhere with a device
    - - Time-consuming
      - Researcher can pull texts out of their context and so there is low reliability
      - Quantitative data hard to interpret subjective issues
      - The selection and recording of data may be subject to researcher bias
  - - - Can quantitative data with qualitative data, thereby providing a study with reliability and validity
      - Cross-referencing the researcher's interpretations to other data collected to check for accuracy
      - Balance between methods; where one may be weaker than another in that particular area of research
    - - Time-consuming
      - Expensive
      - Researcher needs to be skilled in several research methods
      - Positivist and interpretivist approaches may be difficult to combine
  - - - 1) Gaining entry
      - 2) Striking raport
      - 3) Collect enough data to answer your questions and get out
    - - Group observed does not know that research is taking place; involves deception
    - - Group observed does know that research is taking place; has
        informed consent
    - - When researchers observe a group but does not participate in what it is doing
    - - Has high ecological validity
      - Can gain rich insight
      - Flexible
      - Can strike rapport; participants more open
    - - Cover observation requires deception
      - Time-consuming
      - Small sample size and time-consuming, therefore low generalisability
      - Interviewer may sympathise with the group; making the data bias
      - Overt research has heavy Hawthorne Effect
  - - - Takes place in controlled experiments; similar to natural science experiments
      - Favoured by positivists
      - Advantages
        
        Good reliability because it is easy to replicate the exact same conditions
        
        Good reliability because of the high level of detachment between the researcher and the respondent
        
        Easy to establish cause and effect relationships
        
        Easy to attract funding because of the prestige of science
        
        Respondents are often aware and consent is informed
      - Disadvantages
        
        Researcher's expectations affect behaviour through Hawthorne Effect and interview bias
        
        Difficult to generalise to other situations
        
        Artificial environment creates low realism (low ecological validity)
        
        Some experiments may have ethical issues and harm respondents - Milgram experiment for example
    - - Advantages
        
        Have better ecological validity because they take place in real life settings
      - Disadvantages
        
        May be hard to attract funding
        
        Can present ethical problems due to deception
        
        Involves risk as people may become angry about strange and new situations
        
        Researcher can lose control
      - Favoured by interpretivists
      - Effective way of getting to understand group behaviour
- - - - Has better reliability because it is directly collected
      - Data collected is exactly how the researcher wants it and relates well to the issue trying to be solved
      - Information is up-to-date
      - You own the information you collect; it is hidden from the public and competitors
    - - Research may be more expensive
      - More time-consuming
      - May not have the capabilities to perform large-scale research
  - - - It is economical as less effort and expense would be required
      - It saves time because the data is readily available
      - There are a wide variety of secondary sources that can be analysed to further understand the data
      - Can use data with large-scale research that would otherwise be impossible to collect on your own
    - - Data may be outdated
      - You don't have control over the data you collect and so can't alter it to be specific to your needs
      - Data collected may be unreliable; you don't know the processes in which the researcher collected the data
  - - - Allows for greater understanding (Verstehen)
      - Allows respondents to elaborate for themselves
      - Better validity
      - The data is led by respondents, therefore reducing the imposition problem
    - - Difficult to make comparisons
      - Difficult to find trends and correlations
      - Low reliability as difficult to repeat in the same contexts
      - Low generalisibility due to small sample size
      - Time consuming
      - Data difficult to analyse
      - Informed consent can be difficult with participant observations
  - - - Can reach higher sample size; greater generalisability
      - Less time-consuming
      - Greater reliability due to the ability to duplicate research
      - Respondents can be anonymous
      - Easy to find trends and correaltions
      - Deception not needed
      - Data easy to analyse
    - - Does not allow for Verstehen
      - Bad ecological validity
      - Hard to analyse social phenomena
      - Imposition problem
      - Respondents are not given the ability to properly elaborate on their responses
- - - - Society is constructed of individuals who have free will
      - Looks to obtain qualitative data and is more subjective
      - Individuals are unique in their interpretations of events and cannot be studies scientifically